This activity uses REEF data to examine parrotfish population trends. Students practice data management and visualization, develop research questions and critically evaluate citizen science methods. Data interpretation, critical thinking, and communication skills are emphasized.

Parrotfishes were surveyed using two different methods: the Reef Visual Census program (See Smith et al 2011 and Brandt et al 2009 and https://grunt.sefsc.noaa.gov/rvc_analysis20/ for more information about this program) has been conducting a visual survey of reef fish species throughout the Florida Keys since 1978. The roving diver survey (see Adam et al 2015) was used in 2013 to collect data on parrotfishes only at several reefs in the Upper Florida Keys. Both datasets provide information on number of parrotfishes per unit area in selected locations in the Florida Keys. Parrotfish foraging parameters were also derived from behavioral observations of parrotfish feeding. See Adam et al 2015, 2018 for more details.

Data associated with the publication 'Ecological drivers of parrotfish coral predation vary across spatial scales', comparing parrotfish coral predation intensity as it relates to parrotfish density/biomass, coral cover, and other ecological variables from the scale of individual coral colonies to reefs spanning four regions of the Greater Caribbean. This dataset includes several datasets: 1) regional_coral_scar_data.csv: Surveys of coral colonies (with and without parrotfish predation scars) across all regions. 2) processed_coral_scar_data_colony_level.csv: Processed data from the file above filtered to only include coral taxa commonly predated by parrotfishes (determined as coral taxa for which at least 3 colonies across the entire dataset had 3 recent parrotfish predation scars). This includes the calculated coral colony surface area and the estimated total/sum recent scar area per coral colony. 3) regional_fish_data.csv: Parrotfish abundance and size for individuals greater than or equal to 15 cm fork length. This data includes estimated fish weight and related length-weight conversion values used to calculate these values. 4) site_coordinates.csv: Metadata of the latitude and longitude of all study sites.

in situ visual surveys of reproductive behavior, spawning and courtship events

Parrotfishes are widely considered to be important grazers on coral reefs that remove autotrophic biomass from the reef substrate and create bare space that is conducive to larval coral settlement and recruitment. Because of the top-down effects associated with their benthic foraging, this has been a major focus of parrotfish research. Another aspect of parrotfish foraging and trophic ecology that has received very little attention is coprophagy, the consumption of fecal matter. The feces of planktivorous fishes, including Chromis spp., have been identified as important sources of nutrients and trace elements to tropical and temperate reef ecosystems. Their feces are readily consumed by a variety of fishes, including parrotfishes. Although parrotfish coprophagy has been observed in prior studies, its frequency has not yet been quantified. In this study, we observed foraging in five parrotfishes on the fringing reefs of Bonaire, Netherlands: Scarus iseri, Scarus taeniopterus, Scarus vetula, Sparisoma aurofrenatum, and Sparisoma viride. For three of these species, we observed individuals of both ontogenetic phases (terminal and initial phase) to investigate ontogenetic differences in foraging. We found that coprophagy was common in four of these species (Sc. iseri, Sc. taeniopterus, Sc. vetula, and Sp. aurofrenatum), occurring in 46-90% of individuals (Sc. vetula and Sc. taeniopterus, respectively). Though we did not identify the origin of every fecal pellet consumed, we directly observed focal fishes targeting fecal pellets produced by planktivorous Chromis spp. that were often seen schooling above the reef during this feeding behavior. Additionally, most of the fecal pellets consumed by the parrotfishes were similar in appearance (i.e., relative size, shape, coloration, and consistency) to the feces produced by Chromis spp., predominantly Chromis multilineata, suggesting this common origin. However, bites on fecal matter were a relatively small proportion of the total bites taken by these species (< 5%). In contrast, a majority of bites taken by these species were taken on substrates classified as eplithic algal matrix (EAM) or crustose coralline algae (68.5-90.6% of total bites across all five species). Despite being an infrequent target of parrotfish foraging, we estimated that daily fecal C consumption is equivalent to approximately 27% of the daily algal C intake by parrotfishes targeting the major benthic foraging targets of parrotfishes (large turfs, small turfs on endolithic algae or crustose coralline algae, and crustose coralline algae) in Bonaire. The feces of plantivorous reef fishes like Chromis spp. are also likely a valuable source of nutrients to reef fishes, because the fecese of Chromis spp. has higher protein and lipid content and lower C:N and C:P than many benthic marine algae and cyanobacteria, including from the tropics. The absence of coprophagy in Sp. viride and reduced rates of coprophagy in Sc. vetula relative to the other coprophagic species could be the result of increased access to protein-rich endolithic components of the benthos. Access to endolithic components of the benthos increases with body size and the ability to excavate benthic substrate while foraging. Sparisoma viride is an important excavating parrotfish on Caribbean coral reefs, and Sc. vetula is generally larger than the other coprophagic species in our study. Future work should attempt to further quantify the contribution of fecal matter to the nutrition of parrotfishes relative to benthic foraging targets in order to provide a more complete understanding of parrotfish nutritional ecology and to elucidate the importance of coprophagy in nutrient recycling and retention on coral reefs.

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To better understand the functional roles of parrotfishes on Caribbean reefs we documented abundance, habitat preferences, and diets of nine species of parrotfishes (Scarus coelestinus, Scarus coeruleus, Scarus guacamaia, Scarus taeniopterus, Scarus vetula, Sparisoma aurofrenatum, Sparisoma chrysopterum, Sparisoma rubripinne, Sparisoma viride) on three high-relief spur-and-groove reefs (Molasse...

Data collected from manipulative experiments conducted in the Florida Keys. Includes data on algal diversity in fish exclosure plots, reported as total number of unique macroalgal species in each plot. Coral growth data, measured over the course of 14 months. Benthic cover, calculated as the percent cover of canopy and benthos for specific algal groups, and feeding data, presented as the sum of bites taken by scarids and acnathurids of different size classes in exlcosure treatments throughout the experiment.

This dataset contains parrotfish bite observations for the study plots at Pickles Reef, Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary from 2009-2013. Published in Nature Communications (2016) doi:10.1038/ncomms11833, Supplementary Data 2c.

Natural history of the study site:
This experiment was conducted in the area of Pickles Reef (24.99430, -80.40650), located east of Key Largo, Florida in the United States. The Florida Keys reef tract consists of a large bank reef system located approximately 8 km offshore of the Florida Keys, USA, and paralleling the island chain. Our study reef is a 5-6 m deep spur and groove reef system within this reef tract. The reefs of the Florida Keys have robust herbivorous fish populations and are relatively oligotrophic. Coral cover on most reefs in the Florida Keys, including our site, is 5-10%, while macroalgal cover averages ~15%, but ranges from 0-70% depending on location and season. Parrotfishes (Scaridae) and surgeonfishes (Acanthuridae) are the dominant herbivores on these reefs as fishing for them was banned in 1981. The other important herbivore on Caribbean reefs, the urchin Diadema antillarum, remains at low densities across the Florida Keys following the mass mortality event in 1982-3.

Related Reference:
Zaneveld, J.R., D.E. Burkepile, A.A. Shantz, C. Pritchard, R. McMinds, J. Payet, R. Welsh, A.M.S. Correa, N.P. Lemoine, S. Rosales, C.E. Fuchs, and R. Vega Thurber (2016) Overfishing, nutrient pollution, and temperature interact to disrupt coral reefs down to microbial scales. Nature Communications 7:11833 doi:10.1038/ncomms11833 Supplementary Information

With over 600 valid species, the wrasses (family Labridae) are among the largest and most successful of the marine teleosts. They feature prominently on coral reefs where they are known not only for their impressive diversity in colouration and form, but also in their functional specialization and ability to occupy a wide variety of trophic guilds. Among the wrasses, the parrotfishes (tribe Scarini) display some one of the most dramatic examples of trophic specialization. Using abrasion-resistant biomineralized teeth, parrotfishes are able to mechanically extract protein-rich micro-photoautotrophs growing in and amongst reef carbonate material, a dietary niche that is inaccessible to most other teleost fishes. This ability to exploit an otherwise untapped trophic resource is thought to have played a role in the diversification and evolutionary success of the parrotfishes. In order to better understand the key evolutionary innovations leading to the success of these dietary specialists, we sequenced and analysed the genome of a representative species, the spotted parrotfish (Cetoscarus ocellatus). We find significant expansion, selection, and duplication within several detoxification gene families and a novel poly-glutamine expansion in the enamel protein ameloblastin, and we consider their evolutionary implications. Our genome provides a useful resource for comparative genomic studies investigating the evolutionary history of this highly specialized teleostean radiation.

Animals often occupy home ranges where they conduct daily activities. In many parrotfishes, large terminal phase (TP) males defend their diurnal (i.e., daytime) home ranges as intraspecific territories occupied by harems of initial phase (IP) females. However, we know relatively little about the exclusivity and spatial stability of these territories. We investigated diurnal home range behavior in several TPs and IPs of five common Caribbean parrotfish species on the fringing coral reefs of Bonaire, Caribbean Netherlands. We computed parrotfish home ranges to investigate differences in space use and then quantified spatial overlap of home ranges between spatially co-occurring TPs to investigate exclusivity. We also quantified spatial overlap of home ranges estimated from repeat tracks of a few TPs to investigate their spatial stability. We then discussed these results in the context of parrotfish social behavior. Home range sizes differed significantly among species. Spatial overlap between home ranges was lower for intraspecific than interspecific pairs of TPs. Focal TPs frequently engaged in agonistic interactions with intraspecific parrotfish and interacted longest with intraspecific TP parrotfish. This behavior suggests that exclusionary agonistic interactions may contribute to the observed patterns of low spatial overlap between home ranges. Spatial overlap of home ranges estimated from repeated tracks of several TPs of three study species was high, suggesting that home ranges were spatially stable for at least one month. Taken together, our results suggest that daytime parrotfish space use is constrained within fixed intraspecific territories in which territory holders have nearly exclusive access to resources. Grazing by parrotfishes maintains benthic reef substrates in early successional states that are conducive to coral larval settlement and recruitment. Behavioral constraints on parrotfish space use may drive spatial heterogeneity in grazing pressure and affect local patterns of benthic community assembly. A thorough understanding of the spatial ecology of parrotfishes is, therefore, necessary to elucidate their functional roles on coral reefs.

This is the dataset used for the Yarlett et al. (2021) article "Quantifying production rates and size fractions of parrotfish-derived sediment: a key functional role on Maldivian coral reefs" published in Ecology and Evolution.

Resolving how species compete and coexist within ecological communities represents a long-standing challenge in ecology. Research efforts have focused on two predominant mechanisms of species coexistence: complementarity and redundancy. But findings also support an alternative hypothesis that within-species variation may be critical for coexistence. Our study focuses on nine closely related and ecologically similar coral reef fish species to test the importance of individual- versus species-level traits in determining the size of dietary, foraging substrate, and behavioural interaction niches. Specifically, we asked: (i) What level of biological organization best describes individual-level niches? (ii) How are herbivore community niches partitioned among species, and are niche widths driven by species- or individual-level traits? Dietary and foraging substrate niche widths were best described by species identity, but no level of taxonomy explained behavioural interactions. All three niches were dominated by only a few species, contrasting expectations of niche complementarity. Species- and individual-level traits strongly drove foraging substrate and behavioural niches, respectively, whereas the dietary niche was described by both. Our findings underscored the importance of species-level traits for community-level niches, but highlight that individual-level trait variation within a select few species may be a key driver of the overall size of niches.

This is the dataset used for the Lange et al (2020) article "Site-level variation in parrotfish grazing and bioerosion as a function of species-specific feeding metrics" published in Diversity.

This dataset contains the digitized treatments in Plazi based on the original journal article Joao Luiz Gasparini, Jean-Christophe Joyeux, Sergio R. Floeter (2003): Sparisoma tuiupiranga, a new species of parrotfish (Perciformes: Labroidei: Scaridae) from Brazil, with comments on the evolution of the genus. Zootaxa 384: 1-14, URL: http://www.zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:82142975-3858-4904-A267-7B549FEBEAF3

During ontogeny, animals often undergo significant shape and size changes, coinciding with ecological shifts. This is evident in parrotfishes (Eupercaria: Labridae), which experience notable ecological shifts during development, transitioning from carnivorous diets as larvae and juveniles to herbivorous and omnivorous diets as adults, using robust beaks and skulls for feeding on coral skeletons and other hard substrates. These ontogenetic shifts mirror their evolutionary history, as parrotfishes are known to have evolved from carnivorous wrasse ancestors. Parallel shifts at ontogenetic and phylogenetic levels may have resulted in similar evolutionary and ontogenetic allometric trajectories within parrotfishes. To test this hypothesis, using micro-CT scanning and 3D geometric morphometrics, we analyze the effects of size on the skull shape of the striped parrotfish Scarus iseri and compare its ontogenetic allometry to the evolutionary allometries of 57 parrotfishes and 162 non-parrotfish..., To investigate growth allometry, we examined the ontogenetic series of S. iseri, encompassing 54 individuals with a total length ranging from 1.75 to 33.5 cm. For skull shape comparison analyses among S. iseri, other parrotfishes, and non-parrotfishes wrasses, our sample of adults comprises 336 individuals (160 adult parrotfishes and 176 adult non-parrotfish wrasses) from 217 labrid fishes (Table S1). From this dataset, we compared the evolutionary allometry of Scarines reef clade (57 species) to ontogenetic allometry of S. iseri. The ontogenetic series of S. iseri was obtained through sampling carried out in Belize in 2023 (IACUC protocols: UT Austin/AUP-2021-00064 and SERC/10-15-15-SJB; Collection permits: BF000005-16 and BF0042-22) with additional individuals from the Field Museum of Natural History (FMNH). The remaining species were obtained through several museums (Table S1). We assessed the three-dimensional skull shape of each labrid species through micro-computed tomography (μC..., , # Ecological shifts underlie parallels between ontogenetic and evolutionary allometries in the striped parrotfish

Continued methods

(a)Â Â Ontogenetic allometry of *Scarus iseri*

To analyze the shape variation of entire skull and individual bones of S. iseri across development, we applied Principal Component Analysis (PCA) using gm.prcomp function in geomorph package (Adams et al., 2022).

To estimate coefficients of ontogenetic allometry and test the effects of size on skull and bone shapes (superimposed coords), we used Analysis of Variance, fitting a model with one main effect, the factor “Size†, measured as ln-transformed CS (LCS). The ANOVA was performed using the procD.lm function in geomorph (Collyer and Adams, 2018; 2021). To better visualize these relationships, we predicted individual shapes using group-specific regression models, and the resulting shapes for all samples were plotted using a PCA. We plotted PC1 scores against size. Allometric axes were then plo...

Dataset for Yarlett et al., (2018) "Constraining species-size class variability in rates of parrotfish bioerosion on Maldivian coral reefs: implications for regional-scale bioerosion estimates" published in MEPS

Species-specific projected total habitat suitability index (HSI) and HSI's change or 'anomaly' under different carbon dioxide emission levels, including (A) total HSI for the 1970 to 2000 period; and changes in HSI under scenarios of (B) ~400 ppm and (C) ~565 ppm atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration in the high resolution Earth system model (GFDL CM2.6).

Stoplight parrotfish and queen parrotfish eye lens core validation samples.