For most of the colonial period, Virginia was the most populous of the Thirteen Colonies, apart from when it was overtaken by Massachusetts between 1710 and 1740. The Plymouth colony was one of the first permanent settlements in what would become the United States, but is not included as one of the Thirteen Colonies as it was incorporated into Massachusetts in 1691.

The modern history of the United States of America is generally traced back to the founding of Jamestown in the colony of Virginia in 1607. Virginia remained the center of British colonialism in the present-day United States, until the founding of the Plymouth colony in the Northeast in 1620. Virginia remained the largest colony for several decades thereafter, although expansion in the Northeast saw the founding of more individual colonies. The population of the Thirteen colonies first exceeded 100,000 people in the 1660s, and crossed the one million threshold in the 1740s.

New York was the most populous of the Thirteen Colonies' middle colonies in the 17th century, before it was overtaken by Pennsylvania in the early 18th century. New York also had the largest Black population in the middle colonies throughout the colonial era - the majority of these people lived in slavery, however, at just 14 percent of the total population, Blacks made up a much smaller share of the total population in New England and the middle colonies than they did in the southern colonies.

The Colony of Virginia, the location of the Jamestown Settlement (the first permanent English settlement in the Americas), was the most populous southern colony or state in the region until it was partitioned into Virginia and West Virginia during the American Civil War. Virginia was also the most populous of the Thirteen Colonies throughout most of the Colonial Era. In terms of ethnicity, the southern colonies had the largest relative Black populations, with South Carolina even becoming majority-Black in the 1710s.

The Plymouth Colony was established in present-day Massachussets in 1620. It was the first permanent British colony in New England, and the second in the Americas after Jamestown, Virginia. However, the neighboring Massachussets Bay Colony quickly became the most populous of the Thirteen Colonies, and Massachussets maintained this position until the end of the century. In terms of ethnicity, Rhode Island had the highest relative share of Black people in its population, the majority of whom lived in slavery until the 1780s when it was abolished in each of the New England states.

This US History GeoInquiry is designed to enhance teaching the "13 Colonies during the 1700s" in US History classes. The activity uses a web-based map and is tied to the C3 Framework.Explore climate and latitude relative to the settlement of the original 13 colonies.Learning outcomes:Students will be able to use geographic data to analyze climate characteristics of the 13 American colonies.Students will be able to analyze population growth of the 13 American colonies.Find more US History GeoInquiries here or explore all GeoInquiries at https://www.esri.com/geoinquiries

In the past four centuries, the population of the Thirteen Colonies and United States of America has grown from a recorded 350 people around the Jamestown colony in Virginia in 1610, to an estimated 346 million in 2025. While the fertility rate has now dropped well below replacement level, and the population is on track to go into a natural decline in the 2040s, projected high net immigration rates mean the population will continue growing well into the next century, crossing the 400 million mark in the 2070s. Indigenous population Early population figures for the Thirteen Colonies and United States come with certain caveats. Official records excluded the indigenous population, and they generally remained excluded until the late 1800s. In 1500, in the first decade of European colonization of the Americas, the native population living within the modern U.S. borders was believed to be around 1.9 million people. The spread of Old World diseases, such as smallpox, measles, and influenza, to biologically defenseless populations in the New World then wreaked havoc across the continent, often wiping out large portions of the population in areas that had not yet made contact with Europeans. By the time of Jamestown's founding in 1607, it is believed the native population within current U.S. borders had dropped by almost 60 percent. As the U.S. expanded, indigenous populations were largely still excluded from population figures as they were driven westward, however taxpaying Natives were included in the census from 1870 to 1890, before all were included thereafter. It should be noted that estimates for indigenous populations in the Americas vary significantly by source and time period. Migration and expansion fuels population growth The arrival of European settlers and African slaves was the key driver of population growth in North America in the 17th century. Settlers from Britain were the dominant group in the Thirteen Colonies, before settlers from elsewhere in Europe, particularly Germany and Ireland, made a large impact in the mid-19th century. By the end of the 19th century, improvements in transport technology and increasing economic opportunities saw migration to the United States increase further, particularly from southern and Eastern Europe, and in the first decade of the 1900s the number of migrants to the U.S. exceeded one million people in some years. It is also estimated that almost 400,000 African slaves were transported directly across the Atlantic to mainland North America between 1500 and 1866 (although the importation of slaves was abolished in 1808). Blacks made up a much larger share of the population before slavery's abolition. Twentieth and twenty-first century The U.S. population has grown steadily since 1900, reaching one hundred million in the 1910s, two hundred million in the 1960s, and three hundred million in 2007. Since WWII, the U.S. has established itself as the world's foremost superpower, with the world's largest economy, and most powerful military. This growth in prosperity has been accompanied by increases in living standards, particularly through medical advances, infrastructure improvements, clean water accessibility. These have all contributed to higher infant and child survival rates, as well as an increase in life expectancy (doubling from roughly 40 to 80 years in the past 150 years), which have also played a large part in population growth. As fertility rates decline and increases in life expectancy slows, migration remains the largest factor in population growth. Since the 1960s, Latin America has now become the most common origin for migrants in the U.S., while immigration rates from Asia have also increased significantly. It remains to be seen how immigration restrictions of the current administration affect long-term population projections for the United States.

Thirteen Colonies (time-enabled) in ArcGIS PRO. Population in Thousands (collated by Robert Woolner)

In the past four centuries, the population of the Thirteen Colonies and United States of America has grown from a recorded 350 people around the Jamestown colony in Virginia in 1610, to an estimated 346 million in 2025. While the fertility rate has now dropped well below replacement level, and the population is on track to go into a natural decline in the 2040s, projected high net immigration rates mean the population will continue growing well into the next century, crossing the 400 million mark in the 2070s. Indigenous population Early population figures for the Thirteen Colonies and United States come with certain caveats. Official records excluded the indigenous population, and they generally remained excluded until the late 1800s. In 1500, in the first decade of European colonization of the Americas, the native population living within the modern U.S. borders was believed to be around 1.9 million people. The spread of Old World diseases, such as smallpox, measles, and influenza, to biologically defenseless populations in the New World then wreaked havoc across the continent, often wiping out large portions of the population in areas that had not yet made contact with Europeans. By the time of Jamestown's founding in 1607, it is believed the native population within current U.S. borders had dropped by almost 60 percent. As the U.S. expanded, indigenous populations were largely still excluded from population figures as they were driven westward, however taxpaying Natives were included in the census from 1870 to 1890, before all were included thereafter. It should be noted that estimates for indigenous populations in the Americas vary significantly by source and time period. Migration and expansion fuels population growth The arrival of European settlers and African slaves was the key driver of population growth in North America in the 17th century. Settlers from Britain were the dominant group in the Thirteen Colonies, before settlers from elsewhere in Europe, particularly Germany and Ireland, made a large impact in the mid-19th century. By the end of the 19th century, improvements in transport technology and increasing economic opportunities saw migration to the United States increase further, particularly from southern and Eastern Europe, and in the first decade of the 1900s the number of migrants to the U.S. exceeded one million people in some years. It is also estimated that almost 400,000 African slaves were transported directly across the Atlantic to mainland North America between 1500 and 1866 (although the importation of slaves was abolished in 1808). Blacks made up a much larger share of the population before slavery's abolition. Twentieth and twenty-first century The U.S. population has grown steadily since 1900, reaching one hundred million in the 1910s, two hundred million in the 1960s, and three hundred million in 2007. Since WWII, the U.S. has established itself as the world's foremost superpower, with the world's largest economy, and most powerful military. This growth in prosperity has been accompanied by increases in living standards, particularly through medical advances, infrastructure improvements, clean water accessibility. These have all contributed to higher infant and child survival rates, as well as an increase in life expectancy (doubling from roughly 40 to 80 years in the past 150 years), which have also played a large part in population growth. As fertility rates decline and increases in life expectancy slows, migration remains the largest factor in population growth. Since the 1960s, Latin America has now become the most common origin for migrants in the U.S., while immigration rates from Asia have also increased significantly. It remains to be seen how immigration restrictions of the current administration affect long-term population projections for the United States.

At the end of the Revolutionary Period in United States history, the majority of white settlers in the United States of America had English heritage. The Thirteen Colonies, which claimed independence in 1776, was part of the British Empire until this point - English settlers and their descendants made up over 60 percent of the population by 1790. The English were the ethnic majority (among whites) in all states except Pennsylvania, which had a similarly-sized German population, while New York had a sizeable Dutch population as it was a former Dutch colony. The second-largest group was the Irish, where those from both the island's north and south made up a combined 10 percent of the population, followed by the Scottish and Germans at over eight percent each. Outside of the United States, the French and Spanish territories that would later be incorporated into the Union were majority French and Spanish - despite their large size they were relatively sparsely populated. The composition of the U.S. population would change drastically throughout the 19th century due largely to waves of migration from Europe.

About this dataset

Context

The dataset tabulates the Colony Hispanic or Latino population. It includes the distribution of the Hispanic or Latino population, of Colony, by their ancestries, as identified by the Census Bureau. The dataset can be utilized to understand the origin of the Hispanic or Latino population of Colony.

Key observations

Among the Hispanic population in Colony, regardless of the race, the largest group is of Mexican origin, with a population of 13 (76.47% of the total Hispanic population).

Content

When available, the data consists of estimates from the U.S. Census Bureau American Community Survey (ACS) 2019-2023 5-Year Estimates.

Origin for Hispanic or Latino population include:

• Mexican
• Puerto Rican
• Cuban
• Other Hispanic or Latino

Variables / Data Columns

• Origin: This column displays the origin for Hispanic or Latino population for the Colony
• Population: The population of the specific origin for Hispanic or Latino population in the Colony is shown in this column.
• % of Total Hispanic Population: This column displays the percentage distribution of each Hispanic origin as a proportion of Colony total Hispanic or Latino population. Please note that the sum of all percentages may not equal one due to rounding of values.

Good to know

Margin of Error

Data in the dataset are based on the estimates and are subject to sampling variability and thus a margin of error. Neilsberg Research recommends using caution when presening these estimates in your research.

Custom data

If you do need custom data for any of your research project, report or presentation, you can contact our research staff at research@neilsberg.com for a feasibility of a custom tabulation on a fee-for-service basis.

Inspiration

Neilsberg Research Team curates, analyze and publishes demographics and economic data from a variety of public and proprietary sources, each of which often includes multiple surveys and programs. The large majority of Neilsberg Research aggregated datasets and insights is made available for free download at https://www.neilsberg.com/research/.

Recommended for further research

This dataset is a part of the main dataset for Colony Population by Race & Ethnicity. You can refer the same here

PERIOD: Korea, Taiwan, South Sakhalin and Kwantung Province, 1929-1938 year-end. South Pacific Mandate, every October 1 from 1929 to 1937 and end of June 1938 . NOTE: Excluding local troops each places. Locals in Taiwan include indigenous peoples who have not advanced into Sinicization, and Japanese include Koreans. Japanese of Sakhalin and South Pacific Mandate include Koreans and Taiwanese respectively. Locals in Kwantung Province are Manchurian, and Japanese include Koreans and Taiwanese. Excluding South Manchuria Railway Zone from 1937. SOURCE: [Survey by the Statistics Bureau, Imperial Cabinet; Statistics by government offices, overseas territories of Japan].

IntroductionSeabirds and other insular birds are an important part of marine ecosystems and are increasingly threatened worldwide. Phenology, abundance, distribution, and breeding success are important baseline parameters needed to evaluate population trends and dynamics, identify biodiversity hotspots and potential breeding sites, and assess habitat selection. In the Red Sea basin, reliable and complete data on birds are lacking for islands in most of the Important Bird Areas (IBA). Such data are now especially important since development projects have started at several of these locations. Here, we assess the distribution, abundance, phenology, and population trends of 13 bird species that breed in the Duba Islands, Al Wajh Bank, and Al Lith Islands. Breeding success and habitat selection for six species were also assessed.MethodsBetween December 2020 and August 2023, more than 90 islands were visited multiple times with different frequencies. All nests were counted, and the area occupied by the different colonies was georeferenced. Breeding success was assessed by visiting selected colonies multiple times until the chicks were ready to fledge. Habitat selection was determined by analyzing the habitat found in the georeferenced colonies.ResultsMore than 25,000 nests were counted each year, mainly in the summer, on more than 75 islands. Of the 13 species studied, the most abundant and widespread species was the White-cheeked tern, and the second most widespread was the Osprey.DiscussionWe estimate that the Al Wajh Bank hosts the following percentages of global breeding populations: Crab plover: 5%, Sooty gull: 17%–35%, White-eyed gull: 15%, Bridled tern: 1%, White-cheeked tern: 4%, and Lesser crested tern: 2%, making the area a regional and global hotspot for these species. Some of the islands occupied by breeding birds are slated for development for tourism activities as part of the Kingdom’s tourism expansion plans. At the same time, there are several ambitious conservation programs underway in these areas. To be effective, such programs require reliable and comprehensive data of the kind presented here.

During the mid-1800s the American population followed the country’s Manifest Destiny; as land was acquired, westward migration towards the Pacific occurred for various reasons.THE U.S. HISTORY GEOINQUIRY COLLECTIONhttp://www.esri.com/geoinquiriesTo support Esri’s involvement in the White House ConnectED Initiative, GeoInquiry instructional materials using ArcGIS Online for Earth Science education are now freely available. The U.S. History GeoInquiry collection contains 15 free, web-mapping activities that correspond and extend map-based concepts in leading high school U.S. History textbooks. The activities use a standard inquiry-based instructional model, require only 15 minutes for a teacher to deliver, and are device agnostic. The activities harmonize with the C3 curriculum standards for social studies education. Activity topics include:· The Great Exchange· The 13 Colonies - 1700s· The War Before Independence (The American Revolution)· The War of 1812· Westward, ho! (Trails west)· The Underground Railroad· From Compromise to Conflict· A nation divided: The Civil War· Native American Lands· Steel and the birth of a city (natural resources)· World War I· Dust Bowl· A day that lived in infamy (Pearl Harbor)· Operation Overlord - D-Day· Hot spots in the Cold WarTeachers, GeoMentors, and administrators can learn more at http://www.esri.com/geoinquiries.

PERIOD: Korea, Taiwan, South Sakhalin and Kwantung Province and South Manchurian Railway Zone, 1928-1937 year-end. South Pacific Mandate, every October 1 from 1928 to 1936 and end of June 1937. NOTE: Excluding local troops each places. Locals in Taiwan include indigenous peoples who have not advanced into Sinicization, and Japanese include Koreans. Japanese of Sakhalin and South Pacific Mandate include Koreans and Taiwanese respectively. Locals in Kwantung Province are Manchurian, and Japanese include Koreans and Taiwanese. Excluding South Manchuria Railway Zone from 1937. SOURCE: [Survey by the Statistics Bureau, Imperial Cabinet; Statistics by government offices, overseas territories of Japan].

Appendix S1

    Table S1
    Details of field researchers and licences under which they took blood samples from white-tailed tropicbirds from populations in the years of study


    Table S2
    Morphometrics of 616 individual white-tailed tropicbirds from 11 populations. Population codes are as described in Table 1.


    Table S3
    Raw microsatellite genotypes for 382 individual White-tailed tropicbird from 13 populations. Population codes are as described in Table 1


    Table S4
    Details of mtDNA sequences 


    Table S5
    Tests of bottleneck (P-values for one-tailed Wilcoxon’s signed rank test for heterozygosity excess) based on 10 microsatellites in 13 populations of Phaethon lepturus


    Table S6
    Pairwise FST estimates based on nuclear microsatellite variation (above diagonal), and ΦST estimates based on mtDNA sequence (below diagonal) for 11 populations with sample sizes >5 (‘Pop’s) of Phaethon lepturus (see Table 1 for population codes)

...

Population monitoring is vital for conservation and management. However, simple counts of animals can be misleading and this problem is exacerbated in seals (pinnipeds) where individuals spend much time foraging away from colonies. We analyzed a 13-year-series of census data of Galapagos sea lions (Zalophus wollebaeki) from the colony of Caamaño, an islet in the center of the Galapagos archipelago where a large proportion of animals was individually marked. Based on regular resighting efforts during the cold, reproductive (cold-R; August to January) and the warm, non-reproductive (warm-nR; February to May) season, we document changes in numbers for different sex and age classes. During the cold-R season the number of adults increased as the number of newborn pups increased. Numbers were larger in the morning and evening than around mid-day and not significantly influenced by tide levels. More adults frequented the colony during the warm-nR season than the cold-R season. Raw counts suggested a decline in numbers over the 13 years, but Lincoln-Petersen (LP-) estimates (assuming a closed population) did not support that conclusion. Raw counts and LP estimates were not significantly correlated, demonstrating the overwhelming importance of variability in attendance patterns of individuals. The probability of observing a given adult in the colony varied between 16% (mean for cold-R season) and 23% (warm-nR season) and may be much less for independent 2 to 4 year olds. Dependent juveniles (up to the age of about 2 years) are observed much more frequently ashore (35% during the cold-R and 50% during the warm-nR seasons). Simple counts underestimate real population size by a factor of 4–6 and may lead to erroneous conclusions about trends in population size.

Forty-six species totaling approximately 80 million individual seabirds breed in Alaska and the Russian Far East. During the summer, seabirds gather in groups to breed and nest. A group of nesting birds is referred to as a colony. This dataset contains colonies of 1000 or more of these species. These colonies are distributed on all parts of the Alaskan and Russian Far East coasts. Seabird colonies have been censused for many years and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has compiled much of the census data in the North Pacific Seabird Colony Database. The database stores data on the location, breeding population size, and species composition of seabird colonies in the North Pacific. Documented colonies total 1,801 in Alaska and 484 in Far East Russia, each with a few pair to 5.75 million birds.

The following are excerpts from Ensor and Bassett (1987).

A census by counts and estimates of Adelie penguin chicks on the George V Land coast of Antarctica between Commonwealth Bay and Buchanan Bay was undertaken during January 1982. Sections of colonies were photographed for comparison with photographs taken in 1913 during the Australasian Antarctic Expedition; positions and sizes of sub-colonies appeared unchanged after an interval of 68 years. Observations on the distribution of breeding Antarctic fulmars, Cape petrels, Snow petrels, Wilson's storm-petrels and South polar skuas are presented.

This report describes the breeding status of seabirds, particularly Adelie penguins, on the George V Land coast of Antarctica between Commonwealth Bay (67 degrees S, 142.5 degrees E) and Buchanan Bay 67.1166 degrees S, 144.6666 E). The area was visited in January 1982 during the Mawson anniversary expedition of the Oceanic Research Foundation (ORF) on the schooner Dick Smith Explorer. The observations on the breeding of seabirds were conducted as a contribution to the International Survey of Antarctic Seabirds (ISAS) designed to investigate the abundance and distribution of seabirds in the Southern Ocean ecosystem. Of particular interest to this program is the the population status of Adelie penguins Pygoscelis adeliae.

The George V Land coast has seldom been visited. The main expeditions to the area have been the 1911-13 Australasian Antarctic Expedition (AAE) and the 1929-31 British, Australian and New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition (BANZARE). Falla (1937) summarised the biological observations made during these expeditions, including estimates of the numbers of Adelie penguins breeding in the Cape Denison area (67 degrees S, 142.6666 degrees E). The Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions and Expeditions Polaires Francaises have also made visits.

The present observations provide a recent estimate of the breeding population of Adelie penguins in the area. Since the authors' visit to the colonies was late in the breeding season, estimates of numbers were restricted to chicks. The number of chicks gives an approximation of the number of pairs of penguins breeding but due to annual variations in breeding success, these estimates are not as reliable as the direct counts of occupied nests that can be made during the incubation period.

The 1981-82 ORF expedition was based at Cape Denison between 11 and 30 January 1982 where a census of Adelie penguin chicks and observations on the breeding of other birds was conducted. A camp was established on the Mackellar Islands (66.9666 degrees S, 142.65 degrees E) from 12 to 14 January to enable a census of penguin chicks to be made. On 30 January the expedition departed Cape Denison towards the Mertz Glacier tongue (154.3333 degrees E). The cruise track of the vessel followed approximately the outer limit of islets of the Way Archipelago (143.6666 degrees E) and passed close to Moyes Islands (143.85 degrees E) and Hodgeman Islands (144.25 degrees E). Brief visits were made to two islets in the Way Archipelago, Stillwell Island (143.8 degrees E) and an unnamed islet near Garnet Point (143.7666 degrees E).

En route to the Mertz Glacier, a planned landing at Cape Hunter (66.95 degrees S, 142.3333 degrees E) to investigate the breeding population of seabirds including a large colony of Antarctic petrels Thalassoica antarctica (Falla 1937), had to be abandoned due to the onset of high winds.

Adelie Penguin, Pygoscelis adeliae

Locations of Adelie penguin colonies and counts and estimates of the numbers of chicks in each colony are given in a spreadsheet available at the url below. The total numbers of Adelie penguin chicks on the coast between Cape Denison and Buchanan Bay was 55,242.

At Cape Denison, on the Mackellar Islets and on Stillwell Island, direct counts of chicks were made. Counts were replicated until a 5% accuracy was achieved. To aid the counting, the distribution of guano (which approximates to the extent of the sub-colonies) was mapped.

On 12 January at Cape Denison, the first day of the author's counts, chicks were not yet in creches and were still protected by adults at their nest sites. It was possible therefore to count the number of occupied nests, the number of single chicks and pairs of chicks. These counts were obtained for 14 sub-colonies and in 297 nests 413 chicks were recorded. The 4898 chicks counted in the whole of the Cape Denison colony should therefore represent 4898 x 297/413 = 5322 nests at this stage of the breeding season. The original number of pairs of penguins that bred at Cape Denison in the 1981-82 season was greater than 3522 by an unknown number. A more accurate estimate of the actual number of pairs of penguins that bred at Cape Denison in the 1981-82 season could not be made because the authors have no knowledge of breeding failure prior to their visit. Previous estimates for Cape Denison were over 5000 pairs in January 1931 (Falla 1937) and 2000 pairs in January 1974 (Horne 1983).

The authors have not adjusted the number of breeding pairs at colonies other than Cape Denison because it appears there is a difference in the breeding success between colonies in this area. Circumstantial evidence for this was the retarded development of chicks observed at Cape Denison. On 12 January chicks were still protected by adults at their nest sites, while the following day on the Mackellar Islets 7 km away, large creches of chicks from previous seasons were far more abundant than at any of the other colonies visited, suggesting a higher mortality of chicks at this colony. A probable factor inducing the retardation of breeding and higher chick mortality at Cape Denison is the severe weather characteristic of this locality (Mawson 1915). The strong katabatic winds that prevail at Cape Denison lose much of their force before reaching the offshore islands.

Photographs were taken at Cape Denison and on Greater Mackellar Islet and compared with those taken in the 1912-13 breeding season during the AAE (Falla 1937). The relative positions and sizes of the sub-colonies were very similar after an interval of 68 years. Unfortunately the authors did not have the opportunity to take a photograph to match that taken by Falla on Lesser Mackellar Islet in 1931, but comparison with the authors' sketch maps of the sub-colonies indicates that the sizes and positions of the sub-colonies are similar.

Although the authors have no knowledge of the numbers of penguins that bred in other parts of these colonies in the 1912-13 and 1929-31 breeding seasons, the similarity of the sizes and positions of the sub-colonies suggests that the current breeding population at Cape Denison and on the Mackellar Islets is comparable to that present in 1911-13 and 1929-31. This implies that the breeding population of penguins on this part of the Antarctic coast has been relatively stable over some 70 years.

On this basis it is likely that the previous estimates of numbers of breeding penguins on the Mackellar Islets, 100,000 pairs in the 1913-14 season and 200,000 pairs in 1930-31 (Falla 1937), were too high, as the authors' count was 27,130 chicks.

During the authors' visit to the unnamed islet in the Way Archipelago there was insufficient time to conduct a census of chicks and so photographs were taken from which chicks were subsequently counted.

Counts and estimates of chicks in breeding colonies at Cape Gray (66.85 degrees S, 143.3666 degrees E), Moyes Islands, Hodgeman Islands and islets of the Way Archipelago (apart from the two on which the authors landed) were conducted from the vessel and the colonies were mapped in detail. Chicks on islets near to the vessel were counted individually and estimates of chick numbers were made only when the colonies were too distant and individual chicks could not be counted. The accuracy of counts and estimates of chick numbers conducted from the vessel depended on the vessel's distance from the colonies, the terrain and aspect of the breeding areas and visibility. Sun glare and obstruction of view by other islets and icebergs sometimes affected visibility. Use of binoculars was restricted by vibrations of the vessel. Therefore the counts and estimates of number of chicks conducted from the vessel, during which only the colonies in view were considered, underestimated the actual number of chicks, since substantial proportions of some colonies were probably hidden from view. Cape Pigeon Rocks, for example, most probably have relatively large numbers of penguins nesting on their landward facing slopes. This is evidenced by well-defined penguin tracks leading up the snow slopes on the seaward facing aspect.

Some islets were several miles from the vessel and although the identification of penguins breeding on them was not always possible, we assumed all were Adelie penguins.

Photographs of the islets were taken for comparison with the author's field notes and a selection of these have been lodged with the Australian Antarctic Division.

No penguins were observed breeding on the Laseron Islands (66.9833 degrees S, 142.8 degrees E), Blair Islands (66.8333 degrees S, 143.15 degrees E), Fletcher Island (66.8833 degrees S, 143.0833 degrees E), Hannam Islands (66.9166 degrees S, 142.95 degrees E) or on the Close Islands (67.05 degrees S, 144.55 degrees E).

There appears to be a medium-sized colony of Adelie penguins at Cape Hunter, but weather conditions prevented getting close enough to make an estimate of the number of chicks present.

Antarctic Fulmar, Fulmarus glacialoides

About 190 Antarctic fulmar nests with chicks were found on Stillwell Island. Fulmars on nests were seen from the vessel on two other islands in the Way Archipelago. These islands had about 75 and 20 nests.

Cape Petrel, Daption capense

A single Cape petrel nest, containing one chick, was found on Stillwell

Although the founding fathers declared American independence in 1776, and the subsequent Revolutionary War ended in 1783, individual states did not officially join the union until 1787. The first states to ratify the U.S. Constitution were Delaware, Pennsylvania and New Jersey, in December 1787, and they were joined by the remainder of the thirteen ex-British colonies by 1790. Another three states joined before the turn of the nineteenth century, and there were 45 states by 1900. The final states, Alaska and Hawaii, were admitted to the union in 1959, almost 172 years after the first colonies became federal states. Secession in the American Civil War The issues of slavery and territorial expansion in the mid nineteenth century eventually led to the American Civil War, which lasted from 1861 until 1865. As the U.S. expanded westwards, a moral and economic argument developed about the legality of slavery in these new states; northern states were generally opposed to the expansion of slavery, whereas the southern states (who were economically dependent on slavery) saw this lack of extension as a stepping stone towards nationwide abolition. In 1861, eleven southern states seceded from the Union, and formed the Confederate States of America. When President Lincoln refused to relinquish federal property in the south, the Confederacy attacked, setting in motion the American Civil War. After four years, the Union emerged victorious, and the Confederate States of America was disbanded, and each individual state was readmitted to Congress gradually, between 1866 and 1870. Expansion of other territories Along with the fifty U.S. states, there is one federal district (Washington D.C., the capital city), and fourteen overseas territories, five of which with a resident population (American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands). In 2019, President Trump inquired about the U.S. purchasing the territory of Greenland from Denmark, and, although Denmark's response indicated that this would be unlikely, this does suggest that the US may be open to further expansion of it's states and territories in the future. There is also a movement to make Washington D.C. the 51st state to be admitted to the union, as citizens of the nation's capital (over 700,000 people) do not have voting representation in the houses of Congress nor control over many local affairs; as of 2020, the U.S. public appears to be divided on the issue, and politicians are split along party lines, as D.C. votes overwhelmingly for the Democratic nominee in presidential elections.