This statistic depicts the average body mass index (BMI) of U.S. adults aged 20 years and over as of 2016, by gender. According to the data, the average male BMI has increased from 27.8 in 1999-2000 to 29.1 as of 2015-2016.

This statistic depicts the average body mass index (BMI) of U.S. females aged 20 years and over from 1999 to 2016, by ethnicity. According to the data, the average female BMI for those that identified as white was 27.6 in 1999-2000 and increased to 29.1 as of 2015-2016.

Surveys in which U.S. adults report their current weight have shown that the share of those reporting they weigh 200 pounds or more has increased over the past few decades. In 2024, around 28 percent of respondents reported their weight as 200 pounds or more, compared to 15 percent in 1990. However, the same surveys show the share of respondents who report they are overweight has decreased compared to figures from 1990. What percentage of the U.S. population is obese? Obesity is an increasing problem in the United States that is expected to become worse in the coming decades. As of 2023, around one third of adults in the United States were considered obese. Obesity is slightly more prevalent among women in the United States, and rates of obesity differ greatly by region and state. For example, in West Virginia, around 41 percent of adults are obese, compared to 25 percent in Colorado. However, although Colorado is the state with the lowest prevalence of obesity among adults, a quarter of the adult population being obese is still shockingly high. The health impacts of being obese Obesity increases the risk of developing a number of health conditions including high blood pressure, heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and certain types of cancer. It is no coincidence that the states with the highest rates of hypertension are also among the states with the highest prevalence of obesity. West Virginia currently has the third highest rate of hypertension in the U.S. with 45 percent of adults with the condition. It is also no coincidence that as rates of obesity in the United States have increased so have rates of diabetes. As of 2022, around 8.4 percent of adults in the United States had been diagnosed with diabetes, compared to six percent in the year 2000. Obesity can be prevented through a healthy diet and regular exercise, which also increases overall health and longevity.

This statistic depicts the average body mass index (BMI) of U.S. females aged 20 years and over from 1999 to 2016, by age. According to the data, the average female BMI for those aged 40-59 years was 29 in 1999-2000 and increased to 30.4 as of 2015-2016.

US: Prevalence of Overweight: Weight for Height: % of Children Under 5 data was reported at 6.000 % in 2012. This records a decrease from the previous number of 7.800 % for 2009. US: Prevalence of Overweight: Weight for Height: % of Children Under 5 data is updated yearly, averaging 7.000 % from Dec 1991 (Median) to 2012, with 5 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 8.100 % in 2005 and a record low of 5.400 % in 1991. US: Prevalence of Overweight: Weight for Height: % of Children Under 5 data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by World Bank. The data is categorized under Global Database’s USA – Table US.World Bank: Health Statistics. Prevalence of overweight children is the percentage of children under age 5 whose weight for height is more than two standard deviations above the median for the international reference population of the corresponding age as established by the WHO's new child growth standards released in 2006.; ; UNICEF, WHO, World Bank: Joint child malnutrition estimates (JME). Aggregation is based on UNICEF, WHO, and the World Bank harmonized dataset (adjusted, comparable data) and methodology.; Linear mixed-effect model estimates; Estimates of overweight children are also from national survey data. Once considered only a high-income economy problem, overweight children have become a growing concern in developing countries. Research shows an association between childhood obesity and a high prevalence of diabetes, respiratory disease, high blood pressure, and psychosocial and orthopedic disorders (de Onis and Blössner 2003). Childhood obesity is associated with a higher chance of obesity, premature death, and disability in adulthood. In addition to increased future risks, obese children experience breathing difficulties and increased risk of fractures, hypertension, early markers of cardiovascular disease, insulin resistance, and psychological effects. Children in low- and middle-income countries are more vulnerable to inadequate nutrition before birth and in infancy and early childhood. Many of these children are exposed to high-fat, high-sugar, high-salt, calorie-dense, micronutrient-poor foods, which tend be lower in cost than more nutritious foods. These dietary patterns, in conjunction with low levels of physical activity, result in sharp increases in childhood obesity, while under-nutrition continues

United States Prevalence of Overweight: % of Adults data was reported at 67.900 % in 2016. This records an increase from the previous number of 67.400 % for 2015. United States Prevalence of Overweight: % of Adults data is updated yearly, averaging 55.200 % from Dec 1975 (Median) to 2016, with 42 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 67.900 % in 2016 and a record low of 41.000 % in 1975. United States Prevalence of Overweight: % of Adults data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by World Bank. The data is categorized under Global Database’s United States – Table US.World Bank.WDI: Social: Health Statistics. Prevalence of overweight adults is the percentage of adults ages 18 and over whose Body Mass Index (BMI) is more than 25 kg/m2. Body Mass Index (BMI) is a simple index of weight-for-height, or the weight in kilograms divided by the square of the height in meters.;World Health Organization, Global Health Observatory Data Repository (http://apps.who.int/ghodata/).;;

Data from a clustered randomized controlled trial of 12 Head Start Centers in San Antonio, Texas: !Míranos! Look at Us, We Are Healthy! (¡Míranos!)The prevalence of obesity remains high in American children aged 2-5 while one in three Head Start children is overweight or obese. The !Míranos! study was designed to test the efficacy of !Míranos!, an early childhood obesity prevention program, which promoted healthy growth in predominantly Latino children in Head Start. The Míranos! included center-based (policy changes, staff development, gross motor program, and nutrition education) and home-based (parent engagement/ education and home visits) interventions to address key enablers and barriers in obesity prevention in young children. In partnership with Head Start, the study team demonstrated the feasibility and acceptability of the proposed interventions to influence energy-balance-related behaviors favorably in Head Start children. Using a three-arm cluster randomized design, 21 Head Start centers in equal numbers wiere randomly assigned to one of three conditions: 1) a combined center- and home-based intervention, 2) center-based intervention only, or 3) control. The interventions were delivered during the academic year (an 8-month period). A total of 526 3-year-old children were enrolled in the study and followed prospectively one year post-intervention. Outcome data collection was conducted at baseline, immediate post-intervention, and 1-year follow-up and included height, weight, physical activity (PA), and sedentary behaviors by accelerometry, parent reports of sleep duration and TV watching time, gross motor development, dietary intakes, and food and activity preferences. Information on family background, parental weight, PA- and nutrition-related practices and behaviors, PA and nutrition policy and environment at center and home, intervention program costs, and treatment fidelity will also be collected. The study had three specific aims: 1) to test the efficacy of the !Míranos! intervention on healthy weight growth (primary outcome) in normal weight, overweight and obese children, 2) to test the impact of the !Míranos! intervention on children’s PA, sedentary behavior, sleep, and dietary behaviors (secondary outcomes), and 3) to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of the !Míranos! intervention. By targeting different levels of influence and in multiple settings, the !Míranos! showed great promise of developing long-term health habits that reduce the energy imbalance gap by targeting multiple energy-balance-related behaviors. The !Míranos! can be disseminated to various organized childcare settings since it is built on the Head Start program and its infrastructure—a gold standard in early childhood education, as well as current PA and nutrition recommendations for preschool children.

West Virginia, Mississippi, and Arkansas are the U.S. states with the highest percentage of their population who are obese. The states with the lowest percentage of their population who are obese include Colorado, Hawaii, and Massachusetts. Obesity in the United States Obesity is a growing problem in many countries around the world, but the United States has the highest rate of obesity among all OECD countries. The prevalence of obesity in the United States has risen steadily over the previous two decades, with no signs of declining. Obesity in the U.S. is more common among women than men, and overweight and obesity rates are higher among African Americans than any other race or ethnicity. Causes and health impacts Obesity is most commonly the result of a combination of poor diet, overeating, physical inactivity, and a genetic susceptibility. Obesity is associated with various negative health impacts, including an increased risk of cardiovascular diseases, certain types of cancer, and diabetes type 2. As of 2022, around 8.4 percent of the U.S. population had been diagnosed with diabetes. Diabetes is currently the eighth leading cause of death in the United States.

NA: Not applicable, for cells where the zero percent of the population fell into that category.(1) Prevalences and standard errors are calculated using the survey weights from the 5-year visit provided with the dataset. These adjust for unequal probability of selection and response. Survey and subclass estimation commands were used to account for complex sample design.(2) Overweight/obesity is defined as body mass index (BMI) z-score >2 standard deviations (SD) above age- and sex- specific WHO Childhood Growth Standard reference mean at all time points except birth, where we define overweight/obesity as weight-for-age z-score >2 SD above age- and sex- specific WHO Childhood Growth Standard reference mean.(3) To represent socioeconomic status, we used a composite index to capture multiple of the social dimensions of socioeconomic status. This composite index was provided in the ECLS-B data that incorporates information about maternal and paternal education, occupations, and household income to create a variable representing family socioeconomic status on several domains. The variable was created using principal components analysis to create a score for family socioeconomic status, which was then normalized by taking the difference between each score and the mean score and dividing by the standard deviation. If data needed for the composite socioeconomic status score were missing, they were imputed by the ECLS-B analysts [9].(4) We created a 5-category race/ethnicity variable (American Indian/Alaska Native, African American, Hispanic, Asian, white) from the mothers' report of child's race/ethnicity, which originally came 25 race/ethnic categories. To have adequate sample size in race/ethnic categories, we assigned a single race/ethnic category for children reporting more than one race, using an ordered, stepwise approach similar to previously published work using ECLS-B (3). First, any child reporting at least one of his/her race/ethnicities as American Indian/Alaska Native (AIAN) was categorized as AIAN. Next, among remaining respondents, any child reporting at least one of his/her ethnicities as African American was categorized as African American. The same procedure was followed for Hispanic, Asian, and white, in that order. This order was chosen with the goal of preserving the highest numbers of children in the American Indian/Alaska Native group and other non-white ethnic groups in order to estimate relationships within ethnic groups, which is often not feasible due to low numbers.

Average BMI by genotype for rs12255372 in MESA and WHI Hispanics. (XLSX 39 kb)

Generalized estimating equation models for frailty as a function of BMI categories over 18-years of follow up among non-frail older Mexican Americans at baseline (N = 1,648).

BMI, body mass index; N, unweighted number; IQR, interquartile range.

Generalized estimating equation models for each frailty criterion as a function of BMI categories over 18-years of follow up among non-frail older Mexican Americans at baseline (N = 1,648).

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Smart Weight, Body Composition, And BMI Scales Market Size 2025-2029

The smart weight, body composition, and bmi scales market size is forecast to increase by USD 115.7 million, at a CAGR of 5.3% between 2024 and 2029.

The market is experiencing significant growth, driven by the rising health consciousness among individuals. This trend is fueled by the increasing awareness of the importance of maintaining a healthy weight and body composition. Another key factor propelling market expansion is the innovative features offered by smart scales, such as pregnancy mode, which cater to specific user needs. However, the market faces challenges as well. The proliferation of alternative smart wearable devices and applications poses a threat to the market, as consumers have an abundance of choices for tracking their health metrics. Companies in this market must differentiate themselves by offering unique features and integrating seamlessly with other health and fitness platforms to attract and retain customers. To capitalize on opportunities and navigate challenges effectively, market players should focus on continuous innovation, user-centric design, and strategic partnerships.

What will be the Size of the Smart Weight, Body Composition, And BMI Scales Market during the forecast period?

Explore in-depth regional segment analysis with market size data - historical 2019-2023 and forecasts 2025-2029 - in the full report.
Request Free SampleThe smart weight and body composition scale market continues to evolve, driven by advancements in technology and shifting consumer preferences. These devices offer more than just basic weight measurement, providing insights into body composition, muscle mass, body water, bone density, and visceral fat. The market caters to various sectors, including disease prevention, fitness tracking, and health data management. Smart scales integrate user-friendly interfaces and Bluetooth connectivity for seamless data synchronization with mobile apps, allowing for real-time health monitoring and analysis. Marketing strategies focus on personalized feedback, privacy compliance, and user experience (UX) to attract and retain customers. Differentiation comes from features like segmental body composition analysis, dietary analysis, health coaching, and wellness programs. Regulatory compliance, safety standards, and data security are essential considerations, ensuring the protection of sensitive health information. The market's growth potential is significant, with retail sales and online sales contributing to its expansion. Wellness improvement and weight management remain key applications, while pricing strategies and product differentiation influence market penetration. Manufacturing costs, distribution channels, and software updates impact the competitive landscape. As technology advances, smart scales continue to offer more comprehensive health assessments, integrating with smartphones, wearables, and cloud storage for enhanced functionality and convenience.

How is this Smart Weight, Body Composition, And BMI Scales Industry segmented?

The smart weight, body composition, and bmi scales industry research report provides comprehensive data (region-wise segment analysis), with forecasts and estimates in 'USD million' for the period 2025-2029, as well as historical data from 2019-2023 for the following segments. Distribution ChannelOfflineOnlinePriceLess than USD100More than USD100TypeWi-FiBluetoothApplicationHouseholdGymOthersGeographyNorth AmericaUSCanadaMexicoEuropeFranceGermanyItalyRussiaAPACChinaJapanSouth KoreaRest of World (ROW)

By Distribution Channel Insights

The offline segment is estimated to witness significant growth during the forecast period.The market for smart weight, body composition, and BMI scales has seen substantial growth in recent years, with both online and offline channels experiencing significant demand. Online sales enable consumers to purchase these advanced scales from the comfort of their homes, while offline retail outlets provide an opportunity for customers to physically assess the product before making a purchase. Offline channels, including specialty health stores, department stores, hypermarkets, and fitness equipment stores, are particularly effective in reaching a broad consumer base. These retailers often have dedicated sections for health and wellness products, showcasing smart scales alongside other related items. User interface and experience, marketing strategies, data synchronization, Bluetooth connectivity, and sensor technology are integral features of these devices, catering to consumers seeking health risk assessments, muscle mass measurement, segmental body composition analysis, and health data management. Wellness programs, health coaching, body water monitoring, smartphone integration, and personalized feedback are additional features that attract consumers. Regulatory

a Values are mean ± SE or prevalence (95% CI)b Based on a BMI-for-age ≥ 95th percentile of the 2000 CDC Growth Charts (reference #31) or a BMI≥ 30 kg/m2Mean levels (or prevalence) of various measures of body size among 6- to 19-year-olds from 1988–94 through 2011–12.

In 2023, Black adults had the highest obesity rates of any race or ethnicity in the United States, followed by American Indians/Alaska Natives and Hispanics. As of that time, around ** percent of all Black adults were obese. Asians/Pacific Islanders had by far the lowest obesity rates. Obesity in the United States Obesity is a present and growing problem in the United States. An astonishing ** percent of the adult population in the U.S. is now considered obese. Obesity rates can vary substantially by state, with around ** percent of the adult population in West Virginia reportedly obese, compared to ** percent of adults in Colorado. The states with the highest rates of obesity include West Virginia, Mississippi, and Arkansas. Diabetes Being overweight and obese can lead to a number of health problems, including heart disease, cancer, and diabetes. Being overweight or obese is one of the most common causes of type 2 diabetes, a condition in which the body does not use insulin properly, causing blood sugar levels to rise. It is estimated that just over ***** percent of adults in the U.S. have been diagnosed with diabetes. Diabetes is now the seventh leading cause of death in the United States, accounting for ***** percent of all deaths.

Self-reported and measured mean, mean difference, and Pearson correlation coefficient for height, weight, and body mass index.

Background: Few studies have tested the impact of Motivational Interviewing (MI) delivered by primary care providers on pediatric obesity. This study tested the efficacy of MI delivered by providers and registered dietitians (RDs) to parents of overweight children ages two through eight. Methods: Forty-two practices from the American Academy of Pediatrics, Pediatric Research in Office Settings Network were randomly assigned to one of three groups. Group 1 (Usual Care) measured BMI percentile at baseline, one-year, and two-year follow-up. Group 2 (Provider only) delivered four MI counseling sessions to parents of the index child over two years. Group 3 (Provider + RD) delivered four provider MI sessions plus six MI sessions from a RD. The primary outcome was child BMI percentile at two-year follow up. Results: At two-year follow-up, the adjusted BMI percentile was 90.3, 88.1, and 87.1 for Group 1, 2, and 3, respectively. The Group 3 mean was significantly (p =.02) lower than Group 1. Mean changes from baseline in BMI percentile were 1.8, 3.8, and 4.9 across Groups 1, 2, and 3. Conclusion: MI delivered by providers and RDs (Group 3) resulted in statistically significant reductions in BMI percentile. Research is needed to determine the clinical significance and persistence of the BMI effects observed. How the intervention can be brought to scale, in particular how to train physicians to effectively use MI and how best to train RDs and integrate them into primary care settings also merit future research.

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Weight Management Market Size 2024-2028

The weight management market size is forecast to increase by USD 103.8 billion at a CAGR of 10.87% between 2023 and 2028.

The market is witnessing significant growth due to rising obesity rates, particularly in developed and developing economies. The increasing prevalence of sedentary lifestyles, coupled with the influence of social media platforms promoting unhealthy food choices, is fueling this trend. The fast-food industry's continuous expansion and the availability of convenient yet calorie-dense options further exacerbate the issue. Key health concerns, such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, hormonal problems, and certain cancers, are associated with obesity. As a result, consumers are seeking effective solutions, leading to a rise in demand for diet meals, beverages, and supplements. This trend is expected to continue, as chronic diseases linked to obesity pose a significant threat to public health. The market is also witnessing innovative marketing strategies and personalized approaches to cater to the diverse needs of consumers. Despite these opportunities, challenges remain, including regulatory hurdles and consumer skepticism towards weight loss solutions.

What will be the Size of the Market During the Forecast Period?

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The market encompasses a range of products and services aimed at helping individuals maintain a healthy body weight and improve overall wellness. Obesity, driven by sedentary lifestyles and unhealthy dietary choices, remains a significant global health concern, fueling market growth. Chronic diseases, such as diabetes, hypertension, orthopedic diseases, and cardiovascular diseases, are often associated with obesity and create a strong demand for solutions. 
Additionally, hormonal problems and childhood obesity contribute to market expansion. Preventive health measures, including healthy eating habits, daily physical activities, and services, are increasingly popular. Social media plays a role in promoting weight loss trends, from bariatric surgeries to protein powders and fitness programs. The young population and the Gen X and baby boomer generations are key demographics, as they seek to maintain a healthy weight and address age-related health concerns.

How is this Weight Management Industry segmented and which is the largest segment?

The report provides comprehensive data (region-wise segment analysis), with forecasts and estimates in 'USD billion' for the period 2024-2028, as well as historical data from 2018-2022 for the following segments.

Type

  Diet
  Equipment
  Services


Distribution Channel

  Offline
  Online


Geography

  North America

    US


  Asia

    China
    Japan


  Europe

    Germany
    UK


  Rest of World (ROW)

By Type Insights

The diet segment is estimated to witness significant growth during the forecast period.

The market is driven by the increasing prevalence of obesity and related health conditions, including hypertension, diabetes, and orthopedic diseases. Sedentary lifestyles and the consumption of junk food and fast-food contribute to obesity, affecting over one-third of the global population. Obesity can lead to chronic diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases and certain types of cancer. The market includes various segments, such as diet meals, beverages and supplements, exercise, surgical procedures, and services. Digitalization has led to the growth of online sales, ready-to-drink beverages, bars, gels, and powders. Lifestyle changes, including healthy eating habits and daily physical activities, are essential for maintaining a healthy body weight.

Weight management programs and innovative weight-management products, such as functional beverages, functional food, and dietary supplements, offer prevention and consultation services. The market is expected to grow due to the increasing awareness of weight-related health issues and the desire for a healthy immune system among the young population and Gen X and baby boomer generations.

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The diet segment was valued at USD 84.90 billion in 2018 and showed a gradual increase during the forecast period.

Regional Analysis

Asia is estimated to contribute 36% to the growth of the global market during the forecast period.

Technavio's analysts have elaborately explained the regional trends and drivers that shape the market during the forecast period.

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The market in North America is currently the largest global segment, driven by increasing consumer focus on healthier lifestyles and obesity concerns. With over 35% of American adults classified as obese in 2022, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the US market dominates th

Maternal obesity has been associated with a higher risk of pregnancy-related complications in mothers and offspring; however, effective interventions have not yet been developed. We tested two common interventions, calorie restriction and pravastatin administration, during pregnancy in a rhesus macaque model with the hypothesis that these interventions would normalize metabolic dysregulation in pregnant mothers leading to an improvement in infant metabolic and cognitive/social development. A total of 19 obese mothers were assigned to either one of the two intervention groups (n=5 for calorie restriction; n=7 for pravastatin) or an obese control group (n=7) with no intervention, and maternal gestational samples and postnatal infant samples were compared with lean control mothers (n=6). Gestational calorie restriction normalized one-carbon metabolism dysregulation in obese mothers but altered energy metabolism in their offspring. Although administration of pravastatin during pregnancy tended to normalize blood cholesterol in the mothers, it potentially impacted the gut microbiome and kidney function of their offspring. In the offspring, both calorie restriction and pravastatin administration during pregnancy tended to normalize the activity of AMPK in the brain at 6 months, and while results of the Visual Paired-Comparison test, which measures infant recognition memory, were not significantly impacted by either of the interventions, gestational pravastatin administration, but not calorie restriction, tended to normalize anxiety assessed by the Human Intruder test. Although the two interventions tested in a non-human primate model led to some improvements in metabolism and/or infant brain development, negative impacts were also found in both mothers and infants. Our study emphasizes the importance of assessing gestational interventions for maternal obesity on both maternal and offspring long-term outcomes. Methods Study population Pregnant female rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) from an indoor breeding colony at the California National Primate Research Center with appropriate social behavior and previous successful pregnancies were enrolled. Animal handling was approved by the UC Davis Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) (#19299). A qualitative real-time PCR assay (Jimenez & Tarantal, 2003) was used to identify mothers with male fetuses to include in this study. Since obesity is defined as subjects with body fat above 30% for women, according to guidelines from the American Society of Bariatric Physicians, American Medical Association, and in some publications (Okorodudu et al., 2010; Shah & Braverman, 2012), a Body Condition Score (BCS) of 3.5 (32.8 % body fat on average (Summers et al., 2012)) was used as the cutoff. Therefore, mothers with BCS of 3.5 and above were categorized as obese. Obese mothers were randomly assigned to the Obese Control (OC) group, OR group (received calorie Restriction), or OP group (received Pravastatin). Mothers with BCS of 2.5 and below were assigned to the Lean Control (LC) group. The unbalanced sample size was because some mothers were removed from the analyses due to fetal deaths for unknown reasons, misidentification of a female fetus, different timing for study enrollment, or technical issues upon collecting samples. The number of animals was six for the LC, seven for the OC, five for the OR, and seven for the OP groups. Feeding, rearing, and interventions Adult female animals were provided monkey diet (High Protein Primate Diet Jumbo #5047; LabDiet, St. Louis, MO, USA) twice a day between 6–9 am and 1–3 pm. The calories were provided as 56% from carbohydrates, 30% from protein, and 13% from. Mothers in the LC, OC, and OP groups were fed nine biscuits twice a day once pregnancy was confirmed. Mothers in the OR group received a restricted supply of food once the pregnancy was detected and was maintained throughout pregnancy. The food restriction was set such that the average total weight increase would be 8% body weight from the last day before conception because the recommended total weight gain in the 2nd and 3rd trimesters is 5-9 kg for the average US woman with obesity who weighs 80 kg and is 1.6 m in height (Body Mass Index of 30), according to the Institute of Medicine 2009 guidelines (Institute of Medicine and National Research Council, 2009). During nursing of infants older than 4 months, all mothers were provided twelve biscuits. Fresh produce was provided biweekly, and water was provided ad libitum for all mothers. Mothers in the OP group were given pravastatin sodium (ApexBio Technology, Houston, TX, USA) at 20 mg/kg body weight prepared in a neutralized syrup (20 mg/mL sodium bicarbonate dissolved in a fruit-flavored syrup (Torani, San Leandro, CA, USA)) once a day from the time pregnancy was confirmed until delivery. The caloric value of the administration was made so as not to influence body weight or skew nutritional value of the diet among all treatment groups. Both interventions were applied only during gestation. Although most mothers were allowed to deliver naturally, cesarean delivery was performed for fetal indications when recommended by veterinarians (2 for each of the LC and OC groups, and 1 for the OP group). These mothers did not accept their infant following birth, so foster mothers were provided. Sample Collection and pre-processing prior to sample storage The animal caretakers and researchers who collected samples were blinded for group assignment by coding all animals by IDs. The collected biological samples were randomized by using random numbers and the group assignment was blinded during the data collection. Both mothers (during pregnancy) and infants were weighed every week. One day before sample collection, food was removed 30 min after the afternoon feeding, and biological samples were collected prior to the morning feeding. To collect biological samples, animals were anesthetized using 5–30 mg/kg ketamine or 5–8 mg/kg telazol. Both maternal and infant blood was collected using 5 mL lavender top (EDTA) tubes (Monoject, Cardinal Health, Dublin, OH, USA) and urine was collected from the bladder by ultrasound-guided transabdominal cystotomy using a 22-gauge needle and stored in a 15 mL Falcon tube. A placental sample was collected at GD150 transabdominally under ultrasound guidance using an 18-gauge needle attached to a sterile syringe. Sample processing was as previously described in (Hasegawa et al., 2022). Necropsy was conducted between 9:30 am–1:30 pm. First, infants at the age of PD180 were fasted and anesthetized with ketamine, and plasma and urine were collected. Then, euthanasia was performed with 120 mg/kg pentobarbital, followed by heparin injection, clamping of the descending aorta, and flushing with saline until clear. The kidney and brain (amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and prefrontal cortex) were collected, weighed, and immediately frozen on dry ice or liquid nitrogen to store at -80 °C until further analyses. Metabolite extraction and analysis by 1H NMR, and measurement of insulin, cholesterol, cytokine, and cortisol Detailed procedures were previously described (Hasegawa et al., 2022). Briefly, plasma and urine samples were filtered using Amicon Ultra Centrifugal Filter (3k molecular weight cutoff; Millipore, Billerica, MA, USA), and the supernatant was used for analysis. For both the placental and brain tissue samples, polar metabolites were extracted using our previously reported method (Hasegawa et al., 2020). A total of 180 μL of sample (tissue extract or filtered urine or serum) was transferred to 3 mm Bruker NMR tubes (Bruker, Billerica, MA, USA). Within 24 h of sample preparation, all 1H NMR spectra were acquired using the noesypr1d pulse sequence on a Bruker Avance 600 MHz NMR spectrometer (Bruker, Billerica, MA, USA) (O’Sullivan et al., 2013). Chenomx NMRSuite (version 8.1, Chenomx Inc., Edmonton, Canada) (Weljie et al., 2006) was used to identify and quantify metabolites. Heparin-treated plasma samples were used to measure insulin and 17 cytokines and chemokines (hs-CRP, Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, IFN-γ, TNF-α, transforming growth factor-α, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, macrophage inflammatory protein-1β (MIP-1β), and interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra), IL-2, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12/23 p40, IL-13, IL-15, and IL-17A) using a multiplex Bead-Based Kit (Millipore) on a Bio-Plex 100 (Bio-rad, Hercules, CA) following the manufacturer’s protocol. For each sample, a minimum of fifty beads per region were collected and analyzed with Bio-Plex Manager software using a 5-point standard curve with immune marker quantities extrapolated based on the standard curve. Two samples were removed for analysis of TNF-α and IL-1ra as technical errors (both from Animal ID 1132103: 895.2 and 1115.1 pg/mL at gestational days (GD) 90; 510.8 and 617.2 pg/mL at GD120, respectively). Plasma cholesterol level was measured by Clinical Laboratory Diagnostic Product (OSR6116) on Beckman Coulter AU480 (Beckman Coulter, Brea, CA). Infant plasma cortisol level at PD110 was assessed as previously described (Vandeleest et al., 2019; Walker et al., 2018). In short, infants were transferred to a test room at 9 am and blood was drawn at 11 am (Sample 1), followed by another blood collection at 4 pm (Sample 2) and intramuscular injection of 500 μg/kg dexamethasone (Dex) (American Regent Laboratories, Inc., Shirley, NY). On the next day, a blood sample was collected at 8:30 am (Sample 3), and then 2.5 IU of adrenocorticotropic hormone (Amphastar Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Rancho Cucamonga, CA) was injected intramuscularly. The last blood was collected (Sample 4) 30 min after adrenocorticotropic hormone injection. The collected blood samples were processed and stored, and cortisol concentration was assessed by a chemiluminescent assay on the ADVIA Centaur CP platform