Over the past 20 years, the share of the Australian population that holds a degree at a bachelor level or above has increased by more than six times, reaching 50.8 percent in 2022. Since May of 2023, however, that number has dropped to only 32 percent. In Australia, the tertiary education sector comprises both public and private institutions. The student body is comprised of both domestic and international students. University graduate employment Domestic students make up most of the graduates within Australia. The vast majority of graduates in 2022 found full-time employment after studying, with the fields of medicine, pharmacy and rehabilitation having the highest rates of employment post graduation. Dentistry graduates earned the highest median full-time salary of recent university graduates in the country. International study landscape International students are a rapidly growing segment of Australia’s tertiary education sector. The export income from international student activities amounted to just under 36.5 billion Australian dollars in 2023. Chinese students accounted for the largest share of international student enrollments in the same period. Students completing their studies at Australian universities are attracted to the prestige of obtaining a degree at some of the best universities in the world. Moreover, graduates have the opportunity to enter the Australian labor market and to apply for a permanent visa in the country.

AU: Educational Attainment: Doctoral or Equivalent: Population 25+ Years: Female: % Cumulative data was reported at 1.396 % in 2023. This records a decrease from the previous number of 1.670 % for 2022. AU: Educational Attainment: Doctoral or Equivalent: Population 25+ Years: Female: % Cumulative data is updated yearly, averaging 1.150 % from Dec 2014 (Median) to 2023, with 10 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 1.670 % in 2022 and a record low of 0.850 % in 2014. AU: Educational Attainment: Doctoral or Equivalent: Population 25+ Years: Female: % Cumulative data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by World Bank. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Australia – Table AU.World Bank.WDI: Social: Education Statistics. The percentage of population ages 25 and over that attained or completed Doctoral or equivalent.;UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS). UIS.Stat Bulk Data Download Service. Accessed April 5, 2025. https://apiportal.uis.unesco.org/bdds.;;

AU: Educational Attainment: At Least Completed Lower Secondary: Population 25+ Years: Male: % Cumulative data was reported at 93.454 % in 2023. This records a decrease from the previous number of 95.020 % for 2022. AU: Educational Attainment: At Least Completed Lower Secondary: Population 25+ Years: Male: % Cumulative data is updated yearly, averaging 93.050 % from Dec 1971 (Median) to 2023, with 21 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 95.020 % in 2022 and a record low of 70.620 % in 1971. AU: Educational Attainment: At Least Completed Lower Secondary: Population 25+ Years: Male: % Cumulative data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by World Bank. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Australia – Table AU.World Bank.WDI: Social: Education Statistics. The percentage of population ages 25 and over that attained or completed lower secondary education.;UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS). UIS.Stat Bulk Data Download Service. Accessed April 5, 2025. https://apiportal.uis.unesco.org/bdds.;;

From 2000 to 2024, the number of women in Australia who hold a bachelor degree or higher decreased to 23.3 percent of women aged 15 to 64. The overall proportion of women who have a bachelor degree, on the other hand, has been increasing year-on-year.

AU: Educational Attainment: At Least Competed Short-Cycle Tertiary: Population 25+ Years: Female: % Cumulative data was reported at 50.552 % in 2023. This records a decrease from the previous number of 53.240 % for 2022. AU: Educational Attainment: At Least Competed Short-Cycle Tertiary: Population 25+ Years: Female: % Cumulative data is updated yearly, averaging 43.145 % from Dec 2004 (Median) to 2023, with 20 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 53.240 % in 2022 and a record low of 32.560 % in 2004. AU: Educational Attainment: At Least Competed Short-Cycle Tertiary: Population 25+ Years: Female: % Cumulative data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by World Bank. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Australia – Table AU.World Bank.WDI: Social: Education Statistics. The percentage of population ages 25 and over that attained or completed short-cycle tertiary education.;UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS). UIS.Stat Bulk Data Download Service. Accessed April 5, 2025. https://apiportal.uis.unesco.org/bdds.;;

In 2021, 48.6 percent of people aged 25 to 34 years old in major cities in Australia held a bachelor degree or higher. This was around double the proportion of people in this age group with a tertiary education in regional and remote areas outside of the major cities.

AU: Educational Attainment: At Least Master's or Equivalent: Population 25+ Years: Female: % Cumulative data was reported at 9.483 % in 2023. This records a decrease from the previous number of 10.030 % for 2022. AU: Educational Attainment: At Least Master's or Equivalent: Population 25+ Years: Female: % Cumulative data is updated yearly, averaging 7.910 % from Dec 2013 (Median) to 2023, with 11 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 10.030 % in 2022 and a record low of 5.620 % in 2013. AU: Educational Attainment: At Least Master's or Equivalent: Population 25+ Years: Female: % Cumulative data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by World Bank. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Australia – Table AU.World Bank.WDI: Social: Education Statistics. The percentage of population ages 25 and over that attained or completed Master's or equivalent.;UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS). UIS.Stat Bulk Data Download Service. Accessed April 5, 2025. https://apiportal.uis.unesco.org/bdds.;;

From 1974 to 1989 tertiary education in Australia was free. This concept was introduced by the Whitlam Labor Government to make tertiary education more accessible to middle class Australians. However, from 1989 student contributions toward tertiary education was reintroduced and although higher education for Australian citizens is still partially subsidized by the Australian government, the individual cost of obtaining a degree has increased to more than 25,000 Australian dollars.

The Higher Education Contributions Scheme (HECS)

As the Hawke Labor Government reintroduced mandatory student contributions towards tertiary education at the end of the 80s, HECS was offered as a means to mitigate the financial burden of obtaining a tertiary education. The HECS model gave students the option of differing their student contributions, presumably until they had completed their degree and joined the workforce. Despite ongoing increases in the cost of attending university and reduced subsidies from the government, the scheme seems to have had the desired effect, with the number of people holding a bachelor degree in Australia climbing steadily year on year since 1989.

Education to employment

For many university students, attaining a bachelor’s degree is a means to increased employment opportunities. Almost a third of the Australian workforce holds a bachelor’s degree however some industries place a higher value on a university education than others. For example, over 60 percent of the professional, scientific and technical services industry holds a bachelor’s degree, while only 1 in 10 construction employees have completed a university degree. Although a tertiary education is not a guarantee of finding employment straight out of university, it can be a significant advantage in the job market.

The University and Other Higher Education industry is grappling with the post-pandemic landscape. The COVID-19 outbreak significantly shifted the industry's demand and delivery methods. Social distancing requirements and operational constraints caused most universities to pivot online. Remote learning has remained embedded into teaching post-pandemic, providing convenience for students and profitability benefits for universities. A heightened focus on research during the pandemic offset revenue lost from declines in tuition fees. This trend has been slowing and is under additional threat from a US Government that appears intent on reducing its funding for foreign-based research, to the detriment of Australian institutions. The industry's labour market has been volatile as the pandemic pushed universities to increasingly casualise their workforces. Controversies over underpayment have led to reputational damage and strikes among major Australian universities. Melbourne University's enforceable agreement with the Fair Work Ombudsman to pay more than $72.0 million to over 25,000 staff highlights the magnitude of these disputes. Economic and demographic factors have aided the industry's post-pandemic recovery despite these pressures. A depreciating Australian dollar has benefited returning international students, while growth in the population of people aged 18 to 25 has bolstered domestic enrolments. Lower secondary school retention rates, slipping during the pandemic, are dampening this growth. Overall, revenue is expected to drop at an annualised 1.9% to an estimated $38.8 billion over the five years through 2024-25. This trend includes a 0.6% drop in revenue anticipated for 2024-25. The outlook for the industry is promising, driven by changing labour market conditions and demographic trends. Stricter visa requirements to control migration will pose challenges. However, the industry will face these constrictions by constructing new student accommodation facilities, allowing institutions to enrol international students beyond their designated cap. The consolidation of the University of Adelaide and the University of South Australia into Adelaide University in 2026 will intensify competition for enrolments, particularly from international students, given its ambitious ranking goals. These factors mean revenue is forecast to climb at an annualised 2.1% to $43.1 billion through the end of 2029-30.

AU: School Enrollment: Primary: Male: % Gross data was reported at 99.048 % in 2022. This records a decrease from the previous number of 99.797 % for 2021. AU: School Enrollment: Primary: Male: % Gross data is updated yearly, averaging 105.714 % from Dec 1971 (Median) to 2022, with 52 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 112.456 % in 1971 and a record low of 99.048 % in 2022. AU: School Enrollment: Primary: Male: % Gross data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by World Bank. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Australia – Table AU.World Bank.WDI: Social: Education Statistics. Gross enrollment ratio is the ratio of total enrollment, regardless of age, to the population of the age group that officially corresponds to the level of education shown. Primary education provides children with basic reading, writing, and mathematics skills along with an elementary understanding of such subjects as history, geography, natural science, social science, art, and music.;UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS). UIS.Stat Bulk Data Download Service. Accessed April 5, 2025. https://apiportal.uis.unesco.org/bdds.;Weighted average;

As of May 2021, approximately 69 percent of employees in the education and training industry in Australia held a Bachelor degree or higher qualification. That year, the top employing occupations in the education and training of the country were primary and secondary school teachers.

Using data from the 2001-2005 waves of the Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia survey, and taking account of existing estimates of ability bias and social returns to schooling, I estimate the economic return to various levels of education. Raising high school attainment appears to yield the highest annual benefits, with per-year gains as high as 30 percent (depending on the adjustment for ability bias). Some forms of vocational training also appear to boost earnings, with significant gains from Certificate Level III/IV qualifications (for high school dropouts only), and from Diploma and Advanced Diploma qualifications. At the university level, Bachelor degrees and postgraduate qualifications are associated with significantly higher earnings, with each year of a Bachelor degree raising annual earnings by about 15 percent. For high school, slightly less than half the gains are due to increased productivity, with the rest due to higher levels of participation. For vocational training, about one-third of the gains are from productivity, and two-thirds from greater participation. For university, most of the gains are from productivity. I find some evidence that the productivity benefits of education are higher towards the top of the distribution, but the participation effects are higher towards the bottom of the conditional earnings distribution. NOTE: This paper uses confidentialised unit record file data from the Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia (HILDA) survey. The HILDA Project was initiated and is funded by the Commonwealth Department of Family and Community Services (FaCS) and is managed by the Melbourne Institute of Applied Economic and Social Research (MIAESR). The findings and views reported in this paper, however, are those of the author and should not be attributed to either FaCS or the MIAESR. Since the data used in this paper are confidential, they cannot be shared with other researchers. Instructions on how to order the data are available at http://melbourneinstitute.com/hilda/data.html. The Stata do-file used to create the regression results is available from the author upon request. Parts of this paper were drawn from a report prepared for the Victorian Department of Education, who should not be assumed to agree with its contents. I am grateful to the editor (Russell Smyth) and an anonymous referee for valuable feedback on an earlier draft.

As of May 2021, approximately 51 percent of employees in the health care and social assistance industry in Australia held a Bachelor degree or higher qualification. Registered nurses and aged and disabled carers were the top employing occupation in the industry that year.

As of May 2021, 69 percent of people employed in the education and training industry had a bachelor degree or higher qualification. People working in the construction industry were least likely to have a higher education qualification alongside workers in the agriculture, forestry, and fishing industry.

Advancements in technology and broader internet access have transformed online education into an appealing and feasible option for both learning and career progression. The pandemic accelerated this trend, as social distancing measures forced many educational institutions to shift their offerings online. This greater adoption has supported online education revenue, which is expected to surge at an annualised rate of 5.4% over the five years through 2024-25, reaching an estimated total of $12.2 billion. This growth includes an anticipated hike of 4.4% in 2024-25, driven by students pursuing education alongside their busy schedules. Online education offers more flexibility than traditional educational methods, allowing full-time workers to pursue additional learning opportunities. Government reforms in the higher education sector have enhanced these benefits by steering the system towards a more vocational emphasis. These reforms include offering more short courses for workers to upskill and advance their careers. These courses are predominantly delivered online, boosting demand for online education services. This shift has led to a jump in the number of enterprises and establishments within the industry in recent years. Substantial growth in online education has also increased labour demands, with a gain in employment numbers and wage costs necessary to support the expanding subsector. Looking forwards, the subsector is poised to maintain solid profit margins and will undergo sustained growth over the long term. As a more significant number of older Australians return to education, the average student will trend older and these students will demand flexibility, boosting subsector demand. Educational providers will continue transitioning towards online models to cut costs, particularly in staffing and infrastructure. Online education revenue is projected to expand at an annualised 5.3% through the end of 2029-30, reaching an estimated $15.8 billion. This forecast growth highlights the online education subsector’s resilience and underscores its increasing importance as a cornerstone of modern education, accommodating evolving learner needs and global circumstances.

AU: School Enrollment: Primary: % Gross data was reported at 99.133 % in 2022. This records a decrease from the previous number of 99.929 % for 2021. AU: School Enrollment: Primary: % Gross data is updated yearly, averaging 105.455 % from Dec 1971 (Median) to 2022, with 52 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 112.220 % in 1971 and a record low of 99.133 % in 2022. AU: School Enrollment: Primary: % Gross data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by World Bank. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Australia – Table AU.World Bank.WDI: Social: Education Statistics. Gross enrollment ratio is the ratio of total enrollment, regardless of age, to the population of the age group that officially corresponds to the level of education shown. Primary education provides children with basic reading, writing, and mathematics skills along with an elementary understanding of such subjects as history, geography, natural science, social science, art, and music.;UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS). UIS.Stat Bulk Data Download Service. Accessed April 5, 2025. https://apiportal.uis.unesco.org/bdds.;Weighted average;

Students and Courses and Apprentices and Trainees: These statistics cover administrative data sets on student enrolments and qualifications attained with approximately 2 million students enrolling on vocation education and training in Australia each year, 400,000 graduates each year, and around 400,000 people in training as part of an apprenticeship or traineeships. Demographic information on students as well as the qualification they are training in and where the training took place are included. Courses are classified by intended occupation on completion, and field of study. Student Outcomes Survey: In addition a graduate destination survey is run capturing information on the quality of training, occupations before and after training, salary, and further education. Under data tab each collection appears and can be selected individually for information excel files and publications, under data data are three resources, Vocstats datacubes, VET Students by Industry, VET Graduates outcomes, salaries and jobs. http://www.ncver.edu.au For an overview of the statistics please see the following publication https://www.ncver.edu.au/publications/publications/all-publications/statistical-standard-software/avetmiss-data-element-definitions-edition-2.2# Datasets to be attributed to National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER). https://www.ncver.edu.au/ Register for VOCSTATS by visiting the website (http://www.ncver.edu.au/wps/portal/vetdataportal/data/menu/vocstats)

According to a graduate outcome survey conducted in 2022, the total employment rate of recent graduates from Australian universities was the highest for pharmacy degree holders, with almost 97 percent finding any type of employment after finishing their studies.

The employment rate of recent graduates from Australian universities was the highest for rehabilitation and medicine degree holders, with around 96.5 percent finding full-time employment shortly after finishing their studies in 2023.

In 2022, close to 89 percent of Bachelor degree graduates in Australia were employed four months after graduation. A year earlier in 2021, the share of graduates who were employed four months after graduating was around 85 percent.