In June 2025, the personal savings rate in the United States amounted to 4.5 percent. That was a slightly lower figure than a year earlier. The personal savings rate is calculated as the ratio of personal savings to disposable personal income. Within the topic of personal savings in the U.S., there are different goals and reasons for saving. What are personal savings? Saving refers to strategies of accumulating capital for future use by either not spending a part of one’s income or cutting down on certain costs. Saved money may be preserved as cash, put on a deposit account, or invested in various financial instruments. Investing usually incorporates some level of risk which means that part of the invested money can be gone. An example of a relatively safe investment would be saving bonds, such as the debt securities issued by the U.S. Department of the Treasury. Saving trends in the U.S. and abroad Looking at the personal saving rate in the United States throughout the past decades, it can be observed that savings had been decreasing until the mid-2000s, and they increased after the 2008 financial crisis. Still, the largest savings rates were reached in 2020 and 2021. The reason for that increase in the savings rate that year might be related to the measures to contain the COVID-19 pandemic. The value of personal savings in the United Kingdom has also followed a similar trend. Although events like the COVID-19 pandemic may have affect many countries in a similar way, the ability to save, as well as the average savings as a share of personal income across countries can vary significantly depending on multiple factors affecting each territory.

Graph and download economic data for Personal Saving Rate (PSAVERT) from Jan 1959 to Jul 2025 about savings, personal, rate, and USA.

In the 1st quarter of 2025, personal savings amounted to 3.97 percent of the disposable income in the United States. The personal savings rate peaked in 2020, when U.S. households saved on average over 15 percent of their income. After that, it has remained between three and five percent. Savings during recessions During recessions, households often tend to increase their savings due to economic uncertainty and to compensate for any possible loss of income, which could occur, for example, in the case of falling into unemployment. For example, as seen in this statistic, the savings rate increased noticeably between 2007 and 2012, coinciding with a period of crisis. However, there are also factors that affect the amount of money that households can manage to set aside, such as inflation. Saving can be particularly difficult during periods when the inflation rate has been higher than the growth rates of wages. Savings accounts The value of savings deposits and other checkable deposits in the U.S. amounted to roughly 11 trillion U.S. dollars in early 2025, even after a significant fall in the amount of money placed in those types of instruments. In other words, savings accounts are a type of financial asset that is very widely used among households to save money. Nevertheless, interest rates of savings’ accounts differ a lot from one financial institution to another. Some of the lesser-known online banks had the highest interest rates, while the major banks often offered lower interest rates.

This dataset provides values for PERSONAL SAVINGS reported in several countries. The data includes current values, previous releases, historical highs and record lows, release frequency, reported unit and currency.

In 2019, the household savings rates in these selected developed countries ranged from *** percent of disposable income in Finland to **** percent in Switzerland. In 2020, the coronavirus (COVID-19) outbreak and lockdowns implemented by governments led to an increase in the savings rate worldwide, due to reduced consumption expenditure. Why do people save? Savings behavior differs from country, as shown in this statistic. In the United States, most people save for unexpected expenses or retirement. In countries such as Finland, the savings rate may be lower because retirees can rely on generous pension funds. Other reasons that households save include vacation, educational expenses, and home purchase. Factors that affect saving High inflation leads to lower household savings. The projected increase in prices means that people would rather buy immediately, because saving and buying later means paying a higher price. As such, countries with an inflation rate are less likely to have a high savings rate. Other factors include a cultural disposition towards saving mechanisms, such as the emphasis on home ownership seen in the United States.

Key information about Hong Kong SAR (China) Gross Savings Rate

• Hong Kong SAR (China) Gross Savings Rate was measured at 30.2% in Sep 2024, compared with 30.2% in the previous quarter.
• Hong Kong SAR (China) Gross Savings Rate is updated quarterly, with data available from Mar 1999 to Sep 2024, and an average rate of 30.2%.
• The data reached an all-time high of 30.2% in Sep 2006 and a record low of 19.0% in Jun 2023.
• CEIC calculates Gross National Savings Rate from quarterly Gross National Savings and quarterly Gross National Income. Gross National Savings is calculated as Gross National Income less Private and Government Consumption Expenditure plus Net Secondary Income. Census and Statistics Department provides Gross National Income, Private Consumption Expenditure, Government Consumption Expenditure and Secondary Income in local currency.
• In the latest reports, Hong Kong SAR (China) GDP expanded 2.8% YoY in Mar 2023.
• Hong Kong SAR (China) Nominal GDP reached 91,422.6 USD mn in Mar 2023. Its GDP deflator (implicit price deflator) increased 1.9% in Mar 2023.
• Hong Kong SAR (China) GDP Per Capita reached 48,990.8 USD in Dec 2022.

Household Saving Rate in Australia increased to 5.20 percent in the first quarter of 2025 from 3.90 percent in the fourth quarter of 2024. This dataset provides - Australia Households Savings - actual values, historical data, forecast, chart, statistics, economic calendar and news.

Key information about China Gross Savings Rate

• China Gross Savings Rate was measured at 44.3% in Dec 2023, compared with 44.3% in the previous year.
• China Gross Savings Rate is updated yearly, with data available from Dec 1952 to Dec 2023, and an average rate of 44.3%.
• The data reached an all-time high of 44.3% in Dec 2010 and a record low of 16.5% in Dec 1962.
• CEIC calculates Gross Domestic Savings Rate from annual Gross Domestic Savings and annual Nominal GDP. Gross Domestic Savings is calculated as Nominal GDP less Final Consumption Expenditure. The National Bureau of Statistics provides Final Consumption Expenditure in local currency and Nominal GDP in local currency.
• In the latest reports, China GDP expanded 4.5% YoY in Mar 2023.
• China Nominal GDP reached 4,166,759.1 USD mn in Mar 2023. Its GDP deflator (implicit price deflator) increased 0.4% in Mar 2023.
• China GDP Per Capita reached 12,621.7 USD in Dec 2023.

Key information about India Gross Savings Rate

• India Gross Savings Rate was measured at 30.7% in Mar 2024, compared with 30.7% in the previous year.
• India Gross Savings Rate is updated yearly, with data available from Mar 1951 to Mar 2024, and an average rate of 30.7%.
• The data reached an all-time high of 30.7% in Mar 2008 and a record low of 7.9% in Mar 1954.
• CEIC calculates Gross Domestic Savings Rate from annual Gross Domestic Savings and annual Nominal GDP. Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation provides Gross Domestic Savings in local currency and Nominal GDP in local currency based on SNA 2008, at 2011-2012 prices. Gross Domestic Savings Rate is annual frequency, ending in March of each year.
• In the latest reports, India GDP expanded 6.1% YoY in Mar 2023.
• India Nominal GDP reached 873,666.0 USD mn in Mar 2023. Its GDP deflator (implicit price deflator) increased 4.1% in Mar 2023.
• India GDP Per Capita reached 2,452.2 USD in Mar 2023.

Developing countries generally exhibit low ‘saving’ (flow concept) and ‘savings’ (stock concept) rates. The factors underlying household positive or negative saving behaviours in developed and developing countries are not new in the macroeconomic literature. Whereas some determinants are theoretically generic, others are country- or community-specific and worth investigating. In this study, the determinants of household saving behaviour are examined. We obtain the results using primary data from a household survey and a logit econometric model with its associated average marginal effects. Our evidence shows that household income, level of education completed, employment status, and households with launching children (or transitioning older adults) are primary drivers of household saving behaviour in Ghana. Further heterogeneous analysis shows that saving behaviour does not statistically differ by gender but by poverty headcount. In line with the findings of this study, relevant policy prescriptions are discussed. This study contributes to the ongoing discourse on household saving behaviour, specifically within the context of developing countries, by providing empirical evidence from Ghana. Utilising primary household survey data, the research identifies key factors such as income, education level, employment status, and household lifecycle stages (e.g., families with launching children or transitioning older adults) as critical determinants of saving behaviour. The findings offer actionable insights for policymakers in developing economies aiming to boost saving rates, reduce poverty, and promote financial stability. By demonstrating that household saving behaviour varies by poverty headcount rather than gender, the study underscores the need for targeted financial inclusion and education policies. The results are particularly relevant for economic development strategies in countries with similar socio-economic structures, offering a foundation for tailored interventions that can foster more resilient household financial practices. This paper’s insights can shape future research and policy development aimed at addressing the unique saving dynamics in developing nations, ultimately contributing to improved macroeconomic stability and individual financial security.

Key information about Georgia Gross Savings Rate

• Georgia Gross Savings Rate was measured at 26.3% in Sep 2024, compared with 26.3% in the previous quarter.
• Georgia Gross Savings Rate is updated quarterly, with data available from Mar 1996 to Sep 2024, and an average rate of 26.3%.
• The data reached an all-time high of 26.3% in Sep 2018 and a record low of -27.0% in Mar 1996.
• CEIC calculates Gross National Savings Rate from quarterly Gross National Savings and quarterly Gross National Income. Gross National Savings is calculated as the sum of Net Savings and Fixed Capital Consumption. The National Statistics Office of Georgia provides Gross National Savings in local currency and Gross National Income in local currency. Gross Domestic Savings Rate prior to Q1 2010 is based on SNA 1993.
• In the latest reports, Georgia GDP expanded 7.7% YoY in Mar 2023.
• Georgia Nominal GDP reached 9,159.2 USD mn in Sep 2024. Its GDP deflator (implicit price deflator) increased 6.8% in Mar 2023.
• Georgia GDP Per Capita reached 6,671.9 USD in Dec 2022.

Key information about Taiwan Gross Savings Rate

• Taiwan Gross Savings Rate was measured at 37.6% in Dec 2022, compared with 37.6% in the previous quarter.
• Taiwan Gross Savings Rate is updated quarterly, with data available from Mar 1966 to Dec 2022, and an average rate of 37.6%.
• The data reached an all-time high of 37.6% in Jun 2021 and a record low of 15.9% in Mar 1968.
• CEIC calculates Gross National Savings Rate from quarterly Gross National Savings and quarterly Gross National Income. The Directorate-General of Budget, Accounting and Statistics, Executive Yuan provides Gross National Savings in local currency and Gross National Income in local currency.
• In the latest reports, Taiwan GDP contracted 0.5% YoY in Dec 2022.
• Taiwan Nominal GDP reached 182,443.5 USD mn in Dec 2022. Its GDP deflator (implicit price deflator) increased 1.5% in Dec 2022.
• Taiwan GDP Per Capita reached 32,811.0 USD in Dec 2022.

The statistic shows the average retirement account balances of Americans between 50 and 64 as of November 2010, by pension plan. On average, Americans from the bottom 25th percentile (0 - 10,800 U.S. dollars) had 281 U.S. dollars in a KEOGH pension plan, a tax deferred pension plan available to self-employed individuals or unincorporated businesses for retirement purposes. The same income group had, on average, 9,160 U.S. dollars in IRA (individual retirement account) pension plans. Additional info: Retirement saving It is never too early to start thinking about retirement. Plans and provisions for our twilight years often get put off as we deal with life’s more pressing demands, and with solid economic recovery still far from guaranteed, savings plans have been impacted. Despite this, those who wish to enjoy the golden years of their life should save early and save often. There are a number of saving strategies and a number of possibilities available for retirement saving, and this can seem quite daunting and difficult to figure out at first. The U.S. Department of Labor recommends determining net worth to be a good place to start i.e., the total value of assets minus the value of debts. Having ascertained this, and judging by your age, you can start planning how to get the most out of your retirement savings. You should contemplate where you want to be and how you’re going to get there. If you have age on your side, you can afford to be aggressive and put money into riskier funds. If your fund loses in value, you have time to let it grow. However, if you are getting close to retirement, more intensive and low-risk saving methods are recommended.

Key information about Spain Gross Savings Rate

• Spain Gross Savings Rate was measured at 23.7% in Sep 2024, compared with 23.7% in the previous quarter.
• Spain Gross Savings Rate is updated quarterly, with data available from Mar 1999 to Sep 2024, and an average rate of 23.7%.
• The data reached an all-time high of 23.7% in Dec 2003 and a record low of 14.1% in Mar 2012.
• CEIC calculates Gross National Savings Rate from quarterly Gross National Savings and quarterly Gross National Income. National Statistics Institute provides Gross National Savings in EUR and Gross National Income in EUR.
• In the latest reports, Spain GDP expanded 4.2% YoY in Mar 2023.
• Spain Nominal GDP reached 378,402.7 USD mn in Mar 2023. Its GDP deflator (implicit price deflator) increased 6.2% in Mar 2023.
• Spain GDP Per Capita reached 30,157.4 USD in Dec 2021.

Explore the Saudi Arabia World Development Indicators dataset , including key indicators such as Access to clean fuels, Adjusted net enrollment rate, CO2 emissions, and more. Find valuable insights and trends for Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, China, and India.

Indicator, Access to clean fuels and technologies for cooking, rural (% of rural population), Access to electricity (% of population), Adjusted net enrollment rate, primary, female (% of primary school age children), Adjusted net national income (annual % growth), Adjusted savings: education expenditure (% of GNI), Adjusted savings: mineral depletion (current US$), Adjusted savings: natural resources depletion (% of GNI), Adjusted savings: net national savings (current US$), Adolescents out of school (% of lower secondary school age), Adolescents out of school, female (% of female lower secondary school age), Age dependency ratio (% of working-age population), Agricultural methane emissions (% of total), Agriculture, forestry, and fishing, value added (current US$), Agriculture, forestry, and fishing, value added per worker (constant 2015 US$), Alternative and nuclear energy (% of total energy use), Annualized average growth rate in per capita real survey mean consumption or income, total population (%), Arms exports (SIPRI trend indicator values), Arms imports (SIPRI trend indicator values), Average working hours of children, working only, ages 7-14 (hours per week), Average working hours of children, working only, male, ages 7-14 (hours per week), Cause of death, by injury (% of total), Cereal yield (kg per hectare), Changes in inventories (current US$), Chemicals (% of value added in manufacturing), Child employment in agriculture (% of economically active children ages 7-14), Child employment in manufacturing, female (% of female economically active children ages 7-14), Child employment in manufacturing, male (% of male economically active children ages 7-14), Child employment in services (% of economically active children ages 7-14), Child employment in services, female (% of female economically active children ages 7-14), Children (ages 0-14) newly infected with HIV, Children in employment, study and work (% of children in employment, ages 7-14), Children in employment, unpaid family workers (% of children in employment, ages 7-14), Children in employment, wage workers (% of children in employment, ages 7-14), Children out of school, primary, Children out of school, primary, male, Claims on other sectors of the domestic economy (annual growth as % of broad money), CO2 emissions (kg per 2015 US$ of GDP), CO2 emissions (kt), CO2 emissions from other sectors, excluding residential buildings and commercial and public services (% of total fuel combustion), CO2 emissions from transport (% of total fuel combustion), Communications, computer, etc. (% of service exports, BoP), Condom use, population ages 15-24, female (% of females ages 15-24), Container port traffic (TEU: 20 foot equivalent units), Contraceptive prevalence, any method (% of married women ages 15-49), Control of Corruption: Estimate, Control of Corruption: Percentile Rank, Upper Bound of 90% Confidence Interval, Control of Corruption: Standard Error, Coverage of social insurance programs in 4th quintile (% of population), CPIA building human resources rating (1=low to 6=high), CPIA debt policy rating (1=low to 6=high), CPIA policies for social inclusion/equity cluster average (1=low to 6=high), CPIA public sector management and institutions cluster average (1=low to 6=high), CPIA quality of budgetary and financial management rating (1=low to 6=high), CPIA transparency, accountability, and corruption in the public sector rating (1=low to 6=high), Current education expenditure, secondary (% of total expenditure in secondary public institutions), DEC alternative conversion factor (LCU per US$), Deposit interest rate (%), Depth of credit information index (0=low to 8=high), Diarrhea treatment (% of children under 5 who received ORS packet), Discrepancy in expenditure estimate of GDP (current LCU), Domestic private health expenditure per capita, PPP (current international $), Droughts, floods, extreme temperatures (% of population, average 1990-2009), Educational attainment, at least Bachelor's or equivalent, population 25+, female (%) (cumulative), Educational attainment, at least Bachelor's or equivalent, population 25+, male (%) (cumulative), Educational attainment, at least completed lower secondary, population 25+, female (%) (cumulative), Educational attainment, at least completed primary, population 25+ years, total (%) (cumulative), Educational attainment, at least Master's or equivalent, population 25+, male (%) (cumulative), Educational attainment, at least Master's or equivalent, population 25+, total (%) (cumulative), Electricity production from coal sources (% of total), Electricity production from nuclear sources (% of total), Employers, total (% of total employment) (modeled ILO estimate), Employment in industry (% of total employment) (modeled ILO estimate), Employment in services, female (% of female employment) (modeled ILO estimate), Employment to population ratio, 15+, male (%) (modeled ILO estimate), Employment to population ratio, ages 15-24, total (%) (national estimate), Energy use (kg of oil equivalent per capita), Export unit value index (2015 = 100), Exports of goods and services (% of GDP), Exports of goods, services and primary income (BoP, current US$), External debt stocks (% of GNI), External health expenditure (% of current health expenditure), Female primary school age children out-of-school (%), Female share of employment in senior and middle management (%), Final consumption expenditure (constant 2015 US$), Firms expected to give gifts in meetings with tax officials (% of firms), Firms experiencing losses due to theft and vandalism (% of firms), Firms formally registered when operations started (% of firms), Fixed broadband subscriptions, Fixed telephone subscriptions (per 100 people), Foreign direct investment, net outflows (% of GDP), Forest area (% of land area), Forest area (sq. km), Forest rents (% of GDP), GDP growth (annual %), GDP per capita (constant LCU), GDP per unit of energy use (PPP $ per kg of oil equivalent), GDP, PPP (constant 2017 international $), General government final consumption expenditure (current LCU), GHG net emissions/removals by LUCF (Mt of CO2 equivalent), GNI growth (annual %), GNI per capita (constant LCU), GNI, PPP (current international $), Goods and services expense (current LCU), Government Effectiveness: Percentile Rank, Government Effectiveness: Percentile Rank, Lower Bound of 90% Confidence Interval, Government Effectiveness: Standard Error, Gross capital formation (annual % growth), Gross capital formation (constant 2015 US$), Gross capital formation (current LCU), Gross fixed capital formation, private sector (% of GDP), Gross intake ratio in first grade of primary education, male (% of relevant age group), Gross intake ratio in first grade of primary education, total (% of relevant age group), Gross national expenditure (current LCU), Gross national expenditure (current US$), Households and NPISHs Final consumption expenditure (constant LCU), Households and NPISHs Final consumption expenditure (current US$), Households and NPISHs Final consumption expenditure, PPP (constant 2017 international $), Households and NPISHs final consumption expenditure: linked series (current LCU), Human capital index (HCI) (scale 0-1), Human capital index (HCI), male (scale 0-1), Immunization, DPT (% of children ages 12-23 months), Import value index (2015 = 100), Imports of goods and services (% of GDP), Incidence of HIV, ages 15-24 (per 1,000 uninfected population ages 15-24), Incidence of HIV, all (per 1,000 uninfected population), Income share held by highest 20%, Income share held by lowest 20%, Income share held by third 20%, Individuals using the Internet (% of population), Industry (including construction), value added (constant LCU), Informal payments to public officials (% of firms), Intentional homicides, male (per 100,000 male), Interest payments (% of expense), Interest rate spread (lending rate minus deposit rate, %), Internally displaced persons, new displacement associated with conflict and violence (number of cases), International tourism, expenditures for passenger transport items (current US$), International tourism, expenditures for travel items (current US$), Investment in energy with private participation (current US$), Labor force participation rate for ages 15-24, female (%) (modeled ILO estimate), Development

Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, China, India Follow data.kapsarc.org for timely data to advance energy economics research..

Key information about Brazil Gross Savings Rate

• Brazil Gross Savings Rate was measured at 11.9% in Dec 2024, compared with 11.9% in the previous quarter.
• Brazil Gross Savings Rate is updated quarterly, with data available from Mar 1991 to Dec 2024, and an average rate of 11.9%.
• The data reached an all-time high of 11.9% in Sep 1994 and a record low of 4.8% in Mar 1994.
• CEIC calculates Gross National Savings Rate from quarterly Gross Savings and quarterly Gross National Income. The Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics provides Gross Savings in local currency and Gross National Income in local currency, based on SNA 2008 and BPM6. Gross National Savings Rate prior to Q1 2000 is based on benchmark year 1985.
• In the latest reports, Brazil GDP expanded 3.4% YoY in Mar 2023.
• Brazil Nominal GDP reached 491,315.0 USD mn in Mar 2023. Its GDP deflator (implicit price deflator) increased 6.2% in Mar 2023.
• Brazil GDP Per Capita reached 8,936.2 USD in Dec 2022.

The savings banks sector has developed negatively over the last five years. Since 2019, their turnover, which is made up of interest and commission income, has fallen by an average of 1% per year. The reason for the decline was the phase of low interest rates, which made it difficult for savings banks to generate increasing income in their traditional business. The most recent upturn is due to the European Central Bank's increase in the base rate to combat high inflation in Europe. At the same time, however, the tense global situation, demographic change and continued high inflation are having a negative impact on the industry. Turnover of €40.8 billion is expected for 2024, which corresponds to an increase of 0.8% compared to the previous year.The digitalisation of society is also fundamentally changing the sector. Branches are being closed and staff cut. The number of branches has fallen from over 12,000 in 2013 to around 7,300 in the current year. Companies are increasingly focussing on conducting their business online and using modern technologies. However, the investments associated with the integration of apps and online banking into business processes, as well as the high personnel costs in relation to turnover, have led to a reduction in profit margins in the low-interest phase. The pandemic-related increase in write-downs on non-performing loans and intensified price competition are also likely to have contributed to this. The sector is characterised above all by its strong focus on small and medium-sized enterprises. Savings banks account for a high percentage of loan financing for these companies, but banks from outside the sector, fintechs and other competitors are also pushing into this market. For the next five years, IBISWorld expects sales to increase slightly. The industry's turnover is expected to grow by an average of 0.5% per year during this period, meaning that it is likely to amount to 41.8 billion euros in 2029. How the industry reacts to change will be shown by how the savings banks and Landesbanken deal with new technologies and their use. At the same time, it can be assumed that increasing regulation and the tightening of rules will weaken the positive effects of the key interest rate hike. The number of institutions and branches is likely to continue to decline, as is the number of employees. However, this should have a positive impact on the profitability of the sector.

Key information about Bahrain Gross Savings Rate

• Bahrain Gross Savings Rate was measured at 38.1% in Dec 2022, compared with 38.1% in the previous year.
• Bahrain Gross Savings Rate is updated yearly, with data available from Dec 1989 to Dec 2022, and an average rate of 38.1%.
• The data reached an all-time high of 38.1% in Dec 2007 and a record low of 4.5% in Dec 1989.
• CEIC calculates Gross National Savings Rate from annual Gross National Savings and annual Gross National Income. Gross National Savings is calculated as Gross National Income less Consumption plus Net Current Transfers from Abroad. Central Informatics Organization provides Gross National Income, Consumption and Net Current Transfers from Abroad in local currency.
• In the latest reports, Bahrain GDP expanded 1.3% YoY in Jun 2024.
• Bahrain Nominal GDP reached 11,004.5 USD mn in Dec 2022. Its GDP deflator (implicit price deflator) fell 1.6% in Dec 2022.
• Bahrain GDP Per Capita reached 26,120.6 USD in Dec 2021.

Key information about Nepal Gross Savings Rate

• Nepal Gross Savings Rate was measured at 35.6% in Jul 2024, compared with 35.6% in the previous year.
• Nepal Gross Savings Rate is updated yearly, with data available from Jul 2001 to Jul 2024, and an average rate of 35.6%.
• The data reached an all-time high of 35.6% in Jul 2019 and a record low of 23.8% in Jul 2003.
• CEIC calculates Gross National Savings Rate from annual Gross National Savings and annual Gross National Income. The Central Bureau of Statistics provides Gross National Savings in local currency and Gross National Income in local currency, both based on SNA 2008. Gross National Savings Rate is in annual frequency, generally ending on July 15th of each year. Gross National Savings Rate prior to 2011 is calculated from Gross National Savings and Gross National Income, both based on SNA 1993.
• In the latest reports, Nepal GDP expanded 0.8% YoY in Mar 2024.
• Nepal Nominal GDP reached 40,828.2 USD mn in Jul 2022. Its GDP deflator (implicit price deflator) increased 9.1% in Jul 2023.
• Nepal GDP Per Capita reached 1,399.0 USD in Jul 2023.

Abstract

The Ghana Living Standards Survey (GLSS), with its focus on the household as a key social and economic unit, provides valuable insights into living conditions in Ghana. This present report gives a summary of the main findings of the fourth round survey, which was carried out by the Ghana Statistical Service (GSS) over a 12-month period (April 1998 to March 1999).

A representative nationwide sample of more than 5,998 households, containing over 25,000 persons, was covered in GLSS 4. Detailed information was collected on all aspects of living conditions, including health, education, employment, housing, agricultural activities, the operation of non-farm establishments, remittances, savings, and credit and assets. The special focus of GLSS 4 was on collecting detailed labour force, income and expenditure data in respect of all household members.

The key findings of the survey are as follows:

Education

Information are given on levels of educational attainment of the adult population, current school enrolment, educational expenditure by households, adult literacy rates, and apprenticeship training. About 32 percent of all adults (representing nearly three and a half million people) have never been to school, a quarter went to school but did not obtain any qualifications; about 33 percent have the MSLC/JSS certificate as their highest qualification, while the remaining 10 percent (a million adults) have secondary or higher-level qualifications (Section 2.1).

About 8 in every ten children aged 6-15, and about half of those aged 16-18, are currently attending school or college. Attendance rates for females are lower than those for males, especially in the northern half of the country (Section 2.2). The average annual cost to a household of maintaining a person at school or college was ¢163,500 per year in March 1999 cedis (Section 2.3). The survey results indicate that 50 percent of adults in Ghana are literate in English or a local language. There are substantial differences between the sexes, and between localities, with regard to literacy. A little over 6 out of every 10 men, but fewer than 4 out of every 10 women, are literate. More than two-thirds (66%) of adults in urban areas are literate, but in rural areas only 41 percent are literate (Section 2.4).

Health

The survey collected data on each person's health condition over the previous two weeks; on the fertility, pre-natal care and contraceptive use of women aged 15-49; on the post-natal care of children aged 5 years and under; and on the preventive health care and vaccination of children aged 7 years and under. About 26 percent of the sample reported having suffered from an illness or injury in the previous two weeks, 61 percent of whom had to stop their usual activities due to the indisposition (Section 3.2).

The survey found that 7.0 percent of women were currently pregnant, and a further 13.2 percent had been pregnant in the last 12 months. Only about 15 percent of all women aged 15-49 or their partners reported using contraceptives; about 11 percent use modern methods, and 4 percent use traditional methods, to prevent or delay pregnancy (Section 3.3). The level of breastfeeding in Ghana is very high; about 98 percent of all children under 5 have been breastfed at one time or another. About 7 percent of children below the age of 8 have never been vaccinated against any of the childhood killer diseases.

Employment

As a major focus of the survey, a wide range of estimates of economic activity, employment, unemployment, underemployment and working conditions are given in the report. The survey also has detailed information about time spent on housekeeping activities. About 77 percent of the adult population (aged 15+) is currently economically active. The activity rates for males and females differ, with the rate for women in the age group (15-64) lower than those for men, but in the younger age group (7-14) and the older age group (65+) the rates for females exceed those for males. For each age group the activity rates for males and females are higher in rural areas (apart from rural savannah) than in urban areas (Section 4.2).

The majority of the working population is employed in agricultural activities (55.0%), followed by trading (18.3%) and then manufacturing (11.7%). Whereas 27.4 percent of working females are engaged in trading, only 7.4 percent of males are traders. The highest hourly wage rates are obtained in mining and quarrying, followed by financial services and then trading. For all areas of employment, females earn lower wages than males (Section 4.3). About 8 percent of the currently active population can be classified as unemployed, but there is also a high degree of underemployment, with some people having a job but wanting to do more work (Section 4.4).

In many households, particularly in rural areas, family members (especially women) spend a great deal of their time fetching water and firewood, in addition to the time spent on other household activities such as cooking and cleaning (Section 4.5).

Migration

The report provides data on migration to create some awareness that would generate further discussions and research into the complex field of population relocation. Some 52 percent of all Ghanaians are migrants, having previously lived in a locality different from where they are living at present; a further 16 percent have moved away from their birthplace, but subsequently returned (Section 5.1).

Housing

Detailed information is presented on a variety of housing characteristics: the occupancy status of the household; household size and room density; access to drinking water, toilet facilities, source of lighting and fuel, rubbish disposal, and materials used in house construction. A little over 40 percent (24 percent in urban areas and 60 percent in rural areas) of the households own the houses they live in. About 80 percent of the households in urban areas have access to pipe-borne water, compared with only 19 percent in rural areas. More than three-quarters of urban households have electricity for lighting, compared with only 17 percent of rural households. Most urban households use charcoal for cooking, whereas most households in rural areas use firewood. Only 14 percent of urban households, and 2 percent of rural households, have access to a flush toilet (Section 6.3).

Household agriculture

About 2.7 million households in Ghana own or operate a farm or keep livestock (Section 7.1). More than half of households, which cultivate crops hire labour for their operations. The major crops, in terms of sales, are cocoa, maize, groundnuts/peanuts, and rice (Section 7.2). About 2 and a half million households process crops or fish for sale, with the major responsibility for this activity falling on women.

Non-farm enterprises

Approximately 1.9 million households or 49 percent of all households in Ghana operate a non-farm business with women operating two-thirds of these businesses. About 56 percent of all businesses involve retail trade, and most of the rest cover some kind of manufacturing (for instance food, beverages, textiles or clothing) (Section 8.1).

Total expenditure

Average annual household expenditure (both cash and imputed) relative to March 1999 prices was about ¢4,244,000. Given an average household size of 4.3, this implies annual per capita expenditure of about ¢987,000 (Section 9.1). With an exchange rate of ¢2,394 to the US dollar prevailing at March 1999, the average annual household expenditure is US$1,773 and the pre-capita expenditure is US$412. Overall, cash expenditure on food represents 45.4 percent of total household expenditure, while the imputed value of own-produced food consumed by households represents a further 10.3 percent (Section 9.2).

Cash expenditure

Relative to March 1999 prices, Ghanaian households spend on average almost ¢3,500,000 a year (at March 1999 prices), or ¢804,000 on per capita basis (Section 9.3). On national terms, just below half of total cash expenditure (46%) went to food and beverages; and alcohol and tobacco, and clothing and footwear, each accounted for about 10 percent of it. The next most important expenditure groups, in terms of amount spent, are recreation and education (7.5%), transport and communications (5.6%), housing and utility (6.4%) and household goods, operations and services (6.0%).

Food consumption

At the time of the survey Ghanaian households (which number about 4.2 million) were spending on average an amount of almost ¢2.4 billion (at March 1999 prices) on food (Section 9.5), with own-grown food consumed amounting to the value of almost ¢435,000 (Section 8.7). The most important food consumption subgroups, in terms of cash expenditure are roots and tubers (22%), fish (16%), cereals and cereal products (15%), vegetables (9%), and meat (5%). Prepared meals account for 11 percent by value of total food consumption.

While the pattern of consumption, in terms of food subgroups, is broadly similar in urban and rural areas, residents in rural areas consume more roots and tubers, and pulses and nuts than their counterparts in urban areas. Expenditure on alcohol and tobacco is also higher in rural areas. In contrast, the consumption of meat and prepared meal are much higher in urban areas than in rural areas, and urban residents spend much more on cereals and cereal products and poultry and poultry products than their rural counterparts (Section 9.5).

Remittances

About 76 percent of all households reported having remitted money or goods in the previous 12 months to persons who were not their household members. The bulk of these remittances to non-household members went to relatives (93%), and in particular to parents or children (50%), brothers or sisters (18%), and other relatives (23%). Such income flows from the household benefited females (64%) more than their male counterparts (36%).

Whilst