Brazil BR: Gini Coefficient (GINI Index): World Bank Estimate data was reported at 52.000 % in 2022. This records a decrease from the previous number of 52.900 % for 2021. Brazil BR: Gini Coefficient (GINI Index): World Bank Estimate data is updated yearly, averaging 56.400 % from Dec 1981 (Median) to 2022, with 38 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 63.300 % in 1989 and a record low of 48.900 % in 2020. Brazil BR: Gini Coefficient (GINI Index): World Bank Estimate data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by World Bank. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Brazil – Table BR.World Bank.WDI: Social: Poverty and Inequality. Gini index measures the extent to which the distribution of income (or, in some cases, consumption expenditure) among individuals or households within an economy deviates from a perfectly equal distribution. A Lorenz curve plots the cumulative percentages of total income received against the cumulative number of recipients, starting with the poorest individual or household. The Gini index measures the area between the Lorenz curve and a hypothetical line of absolute equality, expressed as a percentage of the maximum area under the line. Thus a Gini index of 0 represents perfect equality, while an index of 100 implies perfect inequality.;World Bank, Poverty and Inequality Platform. Data are based on primary household survey data obtained from government statistical agencies and World Bank country departments. Data for high-income economies are mostly from the Luxembourg Income Study database. For more information and methodology, please see http://pip.worldbank.org.;;The World Bank’s internationally comparable poverty monitoring database now draws on income or detailed consumption data from more than 2000 household surveys across 169 countries. See the Poverty and Inequality Platform (PIP) for details (www.pip.worldbank.org).

BR: Income Share Held by Second 20% data was reported at 7.700 % in 2022. This records an increase from the previous number of 7.500 % for 2021. BR: Income Share Held by Second 20% data is updated yearly, averaging 6.500 % from Dec 1981 (Median) to 2022, with 38 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 8.700 % in 2020 and a record low of 5.000 % in 1989. BR: Income Share Held by Second 20% data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by World Bank. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Brazil – Table BR.World Bank.WDI: Social: Poverty and Inequality. Percentage share of income or consumption is the share that accrues to subgroups of population indicated by deciles or quintiles. Percentage shares by quintile may not sum to 100 because of rounding.;World Bank, Poverty and Inequality Platform. Data are based on primary household survey data obtained from government statistical agencies and World Bank country departments. Data for high-income economies are mostly from the Luxembourg Income Study database. For more information and methodology, please see http://pip.worldbank.org.;;The World Bank’s internationally comparable poverty monitoring database now draws on income or detailed consumption data from more than 2000 household surveys across 169 countries. See the Poverty and Inequality Platform (PIP) for details (www.pip.worldbank.org).

In 2023, the Northeast region of Brazil remained the region with the highest rate of extreme poverty in the country. However, compared to 2022, the rate decreased by around two percent.

Proportion of Population Pushed Below the 60% Median Consumption Poverty Line By Out-of-Pocket Health Expenditure: % data was reported at 2.040 % in 2017. This records an increase from the previous number of 2.030 % for 2008. Proportion of Population Pushed Below the 60% Median Consumption Poverty Line By Out-of-Pocket Health Expenditure: % data is updated yearly, averaging 2.030 % from Dec 1996 (Median) to 2017, with 3 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 2.040 % in 2017 and a record low of 1.920 % in 1996. Proportion of Population Pushed Below the 60% Median Consumption Poverty Line By Out-of-Pocket Health Expenditure: % data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by World Bank. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Brazil – Table BR.World Bank.WDI: Social: Poverty and Inequality. This indicator shows the fraction of a country’s population experiencing out-of-pocket health impoverishing expenditures, defined as expenditures without which the household they live in would have been above the 60% median consumption but because of the expenditures is below the poverty line. Out-of-pocket health expenditure is defined as any spending incurred by a household when any member uses a health good or service to receive any type of care (preventive, curative, rehabilitative, long-term or palliative care); provided by any type of provider; for any type of disease, illness or health condition; in any type of setting (outpatient, inpatient, at home).;Global Health Observatory. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2023. (https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/themes/topics/financial-protection);Weighted average;This indicator is related to Sustainable Development Goal 3.8.2 [https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/metadata/].

Regardless of the employment status, the percentage of the population of Brazil whose average per capita income was below the poverty line experienced a downward trend between 2001 and 2014. In the case of the unemployed population, the share fell from 51.6 to 31.6 percent. However, the percentage of people in unemployment living under the poverty line has been oscillating since that year, and in 2023 the share stood at 38 percent. Furthermore, less than six percent of employees in Brazil were living under the poverty line that year.

Overall, the percentage of the Brazilian population whose average per capita income was below the extreme poverty line experienced a downward trend between 2001 and 2020. In the case of the unemployed and inactive population, the share fluctuates. All statuses peak in 2021, being for the unemployed sector with the highest difference with 21.9 in share increase among them.

Replication data for Chapter 2: The datasets named “Chapter2_2019.xlsx” and "Chapter2_2021.xlsx", as well as the accompanying Stata do-file with the name “Chapter2_DoFile.do” are used in Chapter 2 of the dissertation. Data comes from a study called Nós e as Desigualdades (We and the Inequalities, in Portuguese). This study records Brazilians' public opinion on inequality in the country and is carried out every two years through a partnership between Oxfam (an international non-governmental organisation) and Datafolha (a private Brazilian public opinion research institute). The data used in this study correspond to a pooled cross-section composed of two editions of the survey, one published in 2019 (data collected in February 2019) and one in 2021 (data collected in December 2020). The estimation process is done through Ordered Logistic Regressions.

ABSTRACT The article presents a panorama of socioeconomic hierarchies in late Nineteenth-century Brazil. Income analysis of social classes underpins these echelons. Within a theoretical and historical approach focused on social class, the article reckons that the Brazilian Empire was relatively egalitarian in terms of wages. A broad expressiveness of the lower classes, rather than a hypothetical robustness of the middle or the upper classes, explains this equality. The analysis of purchasing power and patterns of consumption made it possible to identify the degree of precariousness of the popular classes, as well as the existence of mainly urban middle classes. Lastly, salary data on the upper classes should not hide concentration of wealth, a main characteristic of the Empire’s decay, which was largely due to a polarized structure of slave property.

In 2023, the prevalence of extreme poverty among black men and women in Brazil was higher than that observed in other demographic groups. In particular, the rate of extreme poverty among black men reached two percent, which was the highest among all demographic groups.

Abstract The educational inequalities in Brazil may be illustrated by the first Census of 1872, which pointed out that 15.11% of the country's population was composed of slaves. In that year, 50.95% of the population was considered illiterate. The related studies to the Brazilian social issue point to the North and Northeast regions as the most vulnerable in the national territory, a dynamic also reflected in educational opportunities. The population of the Northeast region, for example, presents a primary education completion rate of 27.43% lower in relation to the population living in the Southeast region. The Brazilian social inequality manifests itself in different dimensions, such as the cutting out of gender, ethnicity and region. At the municipal level, the percentage representation of the non-conclusion of the primary education is more evident in sparsely populated municipalities, with a predominantly rural population. In this profile of municipality, Youth and Adult Education is an important mechanism for tackling educational inequalities, especially when articulated with social protection policies.

Multidimensional Poverty Headcount Ratio: UNDP: % of total population data was reported at 3.800 % in 2015. Multidimensional Poverty Headcount Ratio: UNDP: % of total population data is updated yearly, averaging 3.800 % from Dec 2015 (Median) to 2015, with 1 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 3.800 % in 2015 and a record low of 3.800 % in 2015. Multidimensional Poverty Headcount Ratio: UNDP: % of total population data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by World Bank. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Brazil – Table BR.World Bank.WDI: Social: Poverty and Inequality. The multidimensional poverty headcount ratio (UNDP) is the percentage of a population living in poverty according to UNDPs multidimensional poverty index. The index includes three dimensions -- health, education, and living standards.;Alkire, S., Kanagaratnam, U., and Suppa, N. (2023). ‘The global Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) 2023 country results and methodological note’, OPHI MPI Methodological Note 55, Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (OPHI), University of Oxford. (https://ophi.org.uk/mpi-methodological-note-55-2/);;

Replication Data for: "State Transfers, Taxes and Income Inequality in Brazil" as published in BPSR, vol. 9, nº 2, 2015.

The social stratification of food consumption is the main empirical object of this paper. It aims to investigate the possible homology between the practices in the field of food consumption, on the one hand, and the relative positions in social space occupied by social agents, on the other hand. Therefore, such an investigation may be included in a set of studies influenced by Pierre Bourdieu’s sociology of class, which the matizes the symbolic dimensional of class relations. Secondarily, this paper attempts to further our understanding of the mechanisms of social reproduction, especially regarding the role of lifestyles in the production and reproduction of inequalities and symbolic hierarchies.

This article examines the path of economic inequality in Brazil under the current democratic period. It demonstrates that a mechanism of inclusion of outsiders sharply reduced economic inequality. The path of such mechanism is described as being deployed through two sequential phases: (i) in the transition to democracy, the introduction of paradigmatic changes in the model of Brazilian social policies, which had produced a big divide between insiders and outsiders since the 30s; (ii) under universal suffrage, the convergence of conservative and left-wing parties around the preferences of the beneficiaries of those policies, namely minimum wage as well as education and health policies. Such research results challenge the explanatory power of the median voter and the power of the theories of the Left. Instead, they suggest that exogenous changes introduced redistributive policies under a critical juncture, which in turn have given place to endogenous changes in which political competition played a key role.

During a 2023 survey, more than one third of respondents in Brazil stated that their personal income and the income of their families were just enough to cover their needs. Meanwhile, nearly 24 percent of Brazilian interviewees said that the sum of personal and familiar incomes failed to cover their needs.Recently, it has been found that the most important problems affecting Brazil according to its inhabitants are related to poverty and social inequality.

Brazil BR: Income Share Held by Highest 10% data was reported at 41.000 % in 2022. This records a decrease from the previous number of 41.600 % for 2021. Brazil BR: Income Share Held by Highest 10% data is updated yearly, averaging 44.550 % from Dec 1981 (Median) to 2022, with 38 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 51.100 % in 1989 and a record low of 39.500 % in 2020. Brazil BR: Income Share Held by Highest 10% data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by World Bank. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Brazil – Table BR.World Bank.WDI: Social: Poverty and Inequality. Percentage share of income or consumption is the share that accrues to subgroups of population indicated by deciles or quintiles.;World Bank, Poverty and Inequality Platform. Data are based on primary household survey data obtained from government statistical agencies and World Bank country departments. Data for high-income economies are mostly from the Luxembourg Income Study database. For more information and methodology, please see http://pip.worldbank.org.;;The World Bank’s internationally comparable poverty monitoring database now draws on income or detailed consumption data from more than 2000 household surveys across 169 countries. See the Poverty and Inequality Platform (PIP) for details (www.pip.worldbank.org).

Replication data for Chapter 3: The dataset named "Chapter3_Dataset.dta" and the Stata do-file "Chapter3_DoFile.do" are used in Chapter 3 of the thesis. The chapter uses data from students from the University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Brazil, who entered the university between 2010 and 2018. The data comes from two data sources. First, demographic and socioeconomic data at the moment of entering the university and academic information were shared by the university's Academic Board and International Office after receiving the approval of the Brazilian Research Ethics Committee (Protocol 25285919 6.0000.8142). The remaining data were collected through an online survey administered in May 2021. Given that the data used in this chapter is sensitive, containing information that can identify UNICAMP's students, the final dataset is encrypted and cannot be shared. To analyse the data, Propensity Score Matching is used.

Brazil BR: Income Share Held by Lowest 10% data was reported at 1.200 % in 2022. This records an increase from the previous number of 1.000 % for 2021. Brazil BR: Income Share Held by Lowest 10% data is updated yearly, averaging 0.900 % from Dec 1981 (Median) to 2022, with 38 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 1.600 % in 2020 and a record low of 0.600 % in 1989. Brazil BR: Income Share Held by Lowest 10% data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by World Bank. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Brazil – Table BR.World Bank.WDI: Social: Poverty and Inequality. Percentage share of income or consumption is the share that accrues to subgroups of population indicated by deciles or quintiles.;World Bank, Poverty and Inequality Platform. Data are based on primary household survey data obtained from government statistical agencies and World Bank country departments. Data for high-income economies are mostly from the Luxembourg Income Study database. For more information and methodology, please see http://pip.worldbank.org.;;The World Bank’s internationally comparable poverty monitoring database now draws on income or detailed consumption data from more than 2000 household surveys across 169 countries. See the Poverty and Inequality Platform (PIP) for details (www.pip.worldbank.org).

Type and description of the study variables, data sources, and reference period.

Brazil BR: Income Share Held by Third 20% data was reported at 12.300 % in 2022. This records an increase from the previous number of 12.100 % for 2021. Brazil BR: Income Share Held by Third 20% data is updated yearly, averaging 11.000 % from Dec 1981 (Median) to 2022, with 38 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 12.900 % in 2020 and a record low of 8.900 % in 1989. Brazil BR: Income Share Held by Third 20% data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by World Bank. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Brazil – Table BR.World Bank.WDI: Social: Poverty and Inequality. Percentage share of income or consumption is the share that accrues to subgroups of population indicated by deciles or quintiles. Percentage shares by quintile may not sum to 100 because of rounding.;World Bank, Poverty and Inequality Platform. Data are based on primary household survey data obtained from government statistical agencies and World Bank country departments. Data for high-income economies are mostly from the Luxembourg Income Study database. For more information and methodology, please see http://pip.worldbank.org.;;The World Bank’s internationally comparable poverty monitoring database now draws on income or detailed consumption data from more than 2000 household surveys across 169 countries. See the Poverty and Inequality Platform (PIP) for details (www.pip.worldbank.org).