Bulgaria, with the help of the Russian Empire, achieved independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1878. In the decades before independence, Bulgaria's population had remained between 2.2 and 2.8 million people, and growth was much slower then the following century. Although most at the time assumed that it would become a Russian ally, Bulgaria defied the expectations and aligned itself with the western powers, and developed into a modern European state by the turn in the late 1800s. Bulgaria at war In the early twentieth century Bulgaria was involved in both World Wars, as well as two Balkan Wars. The Balkan states were unhappy with the borders assigned to them by the western powers, and instead wanted to re-draw them based on the dispersal of ethnic groups. This led to the first Balkan War in 1912, which saw Bulgaria fight alongside Greece and Serbia against the Ottomans. Bulgaria fought the second Balkan War on all sides, this time against Greece, Serbia, Romania and the Ottomans, as the dispute over borders continued. Bulgaria was defeated this time, and sustained heavy casualties, amassing in 58 thousand fatalities and over 100 thousand wounded in the two wars.

In the First World War, Bulgaria remained neutral at first, in order to recover from the previous wars, but then aligned itself with the Central powers in 1915, and played a vital role in maintaining their control in the Balkans. While Bulgaria was initially successful, its allies weakened as the war progressed, and then Bulgaria eventually succumbed to Allied forces and surrendered in 1918, with almost 200 thousand Bulgarians dying as a result of the war. The interwar years was a period of political and economic turmoil, and when control was re-established, Bulgaria was then able to maintain it's neutrality throughout most of the Second World War, (although there was some conflict and bombings in certain areas). Rise and fall of communism After the war, Bulgaria became a communist state, and life became harsh for the civil population there until the late 1950s when the standard of living rose again. In the late 1980s, like many Eastern European countries, Bulgaria experienced economic decline as the communist system began to collapse. Political failures also contributed to this, and approximately 300 thousand Bulgarian Turks migrated to Turkey, greatly weakening the agricultural economy. This trend of mass migration abroad continued after the fall of the iron curtain, as well as the rise of unemployment. Bulgaria reached it's peak population size in 1985 at 8.98 million inhabitants, but then the number decreases each year, and is expected to be 6.94 million in 2020. This drop in population size has been attributed to the economic collapse at the end of communism in Eastern Europe, causing many to leave the country in search of work elsewhere. Bulgaria also has one of the lowest fertility rates in the world, with 8.7 births per 1,000 people per year (in 2018).

Social integration of minority groups. Topics: Ethnic relations between Bulgarians and Roma, Bulgarians and Turks, Turks and Roma (marriage, friendship, neighborhood; working place, settlement, country); rights of minorities; privileges of ethnic groups; prejudices; Bulgarian Turks/Roma/Armenians/Jews as volunteer soldiers in the Bulgarian armed forces; full-time employment of a religious entity in the Bulgarian army; religion, ethnicity; spoken language.

This study investigates uncertainty avoidance of ethnic groups differentiated by age and gender. A total of 5,126 respondents, including 11 different ethnic groups (from Europe and Asia), participated in an online survey. The findings support that women were more uncertainty avoidant than men in five ethnic groups, namely, Bulgarian, French, Dutch, Japanese, and Chinese. The opposite was seen for the Spanish and Vietnamese ethnic groups in which the women were more uncertainty tolerant. These gender differences were independent of age. The study points out the importance of self-categorization as an indicator of ethnic groups. This type of ethnic identification is related to the commonly used cultural dimension of uncertainty avoidance. Universe: In the 2017–2019 period, a total of 5,126 members of 11 groups participated in a series of cross-cultural investigations. We researched factors that influenced the behavioural intentions of consumers online. In these investigations, the dimension uncertainty avoidance was used to understand cultural differences in online behaviour. Cross-cultural comparisons were made for a variety of factors in consumer behaviour, such as trust and privacy (Broeder 2020), colour (Broeder & Van Doremalen 2021), and celebrity endorsement (Broeder & Goorden 2019), In all these investigations, the scale given by Jung and Kellaris (2004) was used to measure uncertainty avoidance. In the present study, the values of this scale are combined and analysed further for the demographic factors of gender and age. Country / Nation: 11 different cultural groups across Asia (Japan, China, Vietnam, Singapore), Eastern Europe (Greece, Russia, Romania, Bulgaria), and Western Europe (Spain, France, the Netherlands). The dataset contains the cleaned SPSS data file including a codebook ("uncertain_ALL.sav"), and a data report including additional metadata and documentation ("Data report - Broeder - Cultural Uncertainty.pdf").

Soziale Integration von Minderheiten. Themen: Ethnische Beziehungen zwischen Bulgaren und Roma, Bulgaren undTürken, Türken und Roma (hinsichtlich Heirat, Freundschaft,Nachbarschaft, Arbeitsplatz, Wohnort und Land); Rechte der Minderheiten;Privilegien von ethnischen Gruppen; Vorurteile; Bulgaren, Türken, Roma,Armenier, Juden als freiwillige Soldaten in der bulgarischen Armee;Vollzeitbeschäftigung eines religiösen Beistands in der Armee; Religion,Ethnizität; Sprache. Social integration of minority groups.Topics: Ethnic relations between Bulgarians and Roma, Bulgarians andTurks, Turks and Roma (marriage, friendship, neighborhood; working place,settlement, country); rights of minorities; privileges of ethnic groups;prejudices; Bulgarian Turks/Roma/Armenians/Jews as volunteer soldiers inthe Bulgarian armed forces; full-time employment of a religious entity inthe Bulgarian army; religion, ethnicity; spoken language. Schriftliche Befragung mit standardisiertem Fragebogen Interview with standardized questionnaire Wohnbevölkerung im Alter von 18 Jahren und älter The residential population 18+ years of age Auswahlverfahren Kommentar: Zweistufiges repräsentatives Sample; unter Verwendung des Wahlverzeichnisses der letzten nationalen Wahlen (Präsidentschaftswahlen November 2001). Maximaler Fehler: +/-2.5%.