The population in Chile at the beginning of the 19th century was approximately 770,000, and growth was relatively low until Chile’s successful breakaway from the Spanish empire in the 1830s, when it became an independent republic. The population of the country would proceed to triple to over three million by the end of the century and would continue to grow rapidly throughout the 20th and into the 21st century. This rate of increase has been falling slowly since 1990, however, as a result of declining birth rates in the country, and in 2020, Chile is estimated to have a population of just over 19 million.

This archived Paleoclimatology Study is available from the NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI), under the World Data Service (WDS) for Paleoclimatology. The associated NCEI study type is Lake. The data include parameters of paleolimnology with a geographic location of Chile. The time period coverage is from 1767 to -64 in calendar years before present (BP). See metadata information for parameter and study location details. Please cite this study when using the data.

In 1840, the total fertility rate of Chile was estimated to be six children per woman, meaning that women born in Chile in that year could expect to have six children over the course of their reproductive years. Fertility would fluctuate greatly in the second half of the 19th century, as intermittent wars, epidemics, and economic crises would see fertility shift dramatically from year to year. However, as the situation in Chile would begin to stabilize, fertility declined more steadily from the 20th century onward, albeit after returning to just over six children per woman.

Apart from a brief jump in the 1950s, during the global baby boom that followed the Second World War, Chile's total fertility rate has fallen consistently. The rate of decline was fastest between the 1960s and 1990s, as a series of social and economic reforms would see women’s education increase, as well as major declines in child mortality from a series of welfare and healthcare programs. Fertility fell below replacement level in the early 2000s, and the rate is estimated to be below 1.7 births per woman in 2020.

Aim: Few paleoenvironmental studies have been performed in Araucaria-Nothofagus forests, which are highly vulnerable to ongoing threats from climate change and anthropogenic activities. The primary goal of this work is to reconstruct past environmental changes related to fire disturbances over the last 1800 years in Tolhuaca National Park, Chile. Location: Tolhuaca National Park, Araucanian region (38.2°S; 71.8°W), Northwestern Patagonia, Chile. Taxa: Araucaria araucana (Araucariaceae), Nothofagus spp. (Nothofagaceae). Methods: We completed charcoal and pollen analyses to create two new paleoecological records that span 1800 years. We compared the lake-based reconstruction with the available local tree-ring fire scar chronologies from the last 430 years. Using these data, we compute forest index changes, biomass burning trends, and compare with estimates of archaeological radiocarbon density. We place our inferences with context of published regional paleoclimatic proxies from the Patag..., Chronology: Two sediment cores were collected in Verde (112 cm) and Malleco (120 cm) lakes using an UWITEC gravity corer. Radionuclide measurements using a gamma spectrometer were performed to estimate the 210Pb, 226Ra (to support 210Pb activity), and 137Cs activities on the first 20 cm). In addition, AMS radiocarbon dating was performed in both lakes. Radiocarbon ages were calibrated using the SHCal20 curve (Hogg et al., 2020). The age-depth models were computed using an integrated chronology based on 210Pb, 137Cs, and 14C dates through Bayesian analyses in “rPlum†package (Aquino-López et al., 2018; Blaauw et al., 2020) in R platform. Charcoal analyses: To infer fire regime, macroscopic (>125 µm) charcoal fractions were analyzed in Verde and Malleco cores. 2 cm3 of sediment were taken at 1 cm intervals for the length of the core, sieved through 125 μm and 250 μm screens, following the methodology outlined by Whitlock and Larsen (2001). Pollen analyses: Verde and Malleco cores were..., , # Pollen and charcoal from Tolhuaca National Park, south-central Chile

Research article:

Fire-climate-human dynamics over the last 1800 years in the mesic Araucaria-Nothofagus forests.

Authors: Martel-Cea, Alejandra (1,2,3), Abarzúa, Ana M. (2,4), González, Mauro E. (5,6,7), Jarpa, Leonora (2), Hernández, Marjorie (2).

Journal: Journal of Biogeography

Year: 2024

DOI: 10.1111/jbi.14839

Corresponding author: anaabarzua@uach.cl

Affiliations:

(1) Corporación Centro de Estudios Avanzados en Zonas à ridas, La Serena, Chile

(2) Instituto Ciencias de la Tierra, Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile. Valdivia, Chile

(3) Laboratorio Natural Andes del Sur, Universidad Austral de Chile. Valdivia, Chile

(4) Núcleo de Estudios Transdisciplinarios del Cuaternario del Sur de Chile (TAQUACh), Universidad Austral de Chile. Valdivia, Chile

(5) Instituto de Conservación Biodiversidad y Territorio, Facultad de Ciencias Forestales y Re...

Much of Argentina's modern society and culture is rooted in the Spanish Empire's colonization of the region in the 16th century, along with the influx of European migration to the country around the turn of the twentieth century. There are records of human presence in the region dating back to the paleolithic period (3.3 million to 9,650 BCE) and the Incan Empire is known to have extended into the region before Columbus' arrival in the Americas in 1492; however most of this culture and civilization was wiped out by Europeans in the 1500s. During Spanish colonization, the majority of Argentina was a part of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata (which also included territories in modern-day Chile, Bolivia, Paraguay and Uruguay) and was still economically bound to the Spanish crown. With a population of just 0.5 million in 1800, a combination of mass migration (particularly from Southern Europe) and high birth rates have helped Argentina's population grow above 45 million over the past two centuries.

Independence, Immigration and the Gold rush The age of enlightenment and revolutions in Europe inspired a longing in the region for independence, and Napoleon's invasion of Spain in 1808 was the catalyst for the Spanish Empire's downfall in the Americas, with Argentinian independence declared in 1816. The Spanish military was then defeated in mid 1800s, but for the majority of the next century there was little political or economic stability in the region, with several small-scale civil wars between the different Argentinian states. Starting with the government of Julio Argentino Roca in 1880, ten consecutive federal governments actively pursued a liberal economic policy which led to a massive wave of state-promoted European immigration; so much so that the number of migrants received by Argentina in that period was second only to the United States worldwide. This immigration led to the rejuvenation and reinvention of Argentinian society and economy to such an extent, that by 1908 the country had the seventh largest economy in the world. This in turn led to further immigration and higher standards of living. It is also worth noting that the Tierra del Fuego gold rush that started around 1883 and lasted to around 1906 also contributed greatly to immigration. Unfortunately, Argentina was unable to retain it's acquired economic might; it failed to develop industrially at the same speed as the rest of the world, and the Great Depression of 1929 set in motion an economic decline that contributed to much civil and political unrest.

The impact of Perón, and modern Argentina
The election of Juan Perón in 1946 proved to be a defining point in Argentina's history; Perón was a demagogue who imprisoned (and reportedly tortured) his rivals and critics, and whose isolationist policies and radical spending contributed to severe inflation. With the death of Perón's extremely popular wife, Eva Duarte, in 1952, his popularity declined and he was eventually exiled following a coup in 1955. Despite this exile, Perón returned in 1973 and re-assumed the presidency, until his death in 1974, where he was the succeeded by his third wife. Peron's political philosophy, known as "Peronism", is a mixture of right wing nationalist and left wing populist theories; although Peronism has developed greatly over time, its core belief system is the foundation of Argentina's largest party, the Justicialist Party (although they have become increasingly left wing since the Kirchner administrations).

With the expulsion of Perón in 1955, Argentina's trend of military coups and failed governments continued, and the country faced further economic instability. Despite all of this, medical advancements and improvements to quality of life across the globe helped Argentina's mortality rate to decline, and the population grew at a faster rate than ever before. In April 1982, Argentine forces invaded the British territory of the Falkland Islands, leading to a ten week war between the nations, that ended with Argentina's surrender in June. The war had a relatively small death toll, but contributed to riots in Buenos Aires, which helped to topple the military dictatorship and established the current democratic system. Following a severe recession that began in 2001, President Néstor Kirchner assumed office in 2003, and his wife took over from 2007 to 2015; during the Kirchner administrations, more than eleven million people were lifted out of poverty, and Argentina's economy grew in stature to become one of the Group of Twenty.

This dataset presents information on historical central government revenues for 31 countries in Europe and the Americas for the period from 1800 (or independence) to 2012. The countries included are: Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Denmark, Ecuador, Finland, France, Germany (West Germany between 1949 and 1990), Ireland, Italy, Japan, Mexico, New Zealand, Norway, Paraguay, Peru, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, the United States, Uruguay, and Venezuela. In other words, the dataset includes all South American, North American, and Western European countries with a population of more than one million, plus Australia, New Zealand, Japan, and Mexico. The dataset contains information on the public finances of central governments. To make such information comparable cross-nationally we have chosen to normalize nominal revenue figures in two ways: (i) as a share of the total budget, and (ii) as a share of total gross domestic product. The total tax revenue of the central state is disaggregated guided by the Government Finance Statistics Manual 2001 of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) which provides a classification of types of revenue, and describes in detail the contents of each classification category. Given the paucity of detailed historical data and the needs of our project, we combined some subcategories. First, we are interested in total tax revenue (centaxtot), as well as the shares of total revenue coming from direct (centaxdirectsh) and indirect (centaxindirectsh) taxes. Further, we measure two sub-categories of direct taxation, namely taxes on property (centaxpropertysh) and income (centaxincomesh). For indirect taxes, we separate excises (centaxexcisesh), consumption (centaxconssh), and customs(centaxcustomssh).

For a more detailed description of the dataset and the coding process, see the codebook available in the .zip-file.

Purpose:

This dataset presents information on historical central government revenues for 31 countries in Europe and the Americas for the period from 1800 (or independence) to 2012. The countries included are: Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Denmark, Ecuador, Finland, France, Germany (West Germany between 1949 and 1990), Ireland, Italy, Japan, Mexico, New Zealand, Norway, Paraguay, Peru, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, the United States, Uruguay, and Venezuela. In other words, the dataset includes all South American, North American, and Western European countries with a population of more than one million, plus Australia, New Zealand, Japan, and Mexico. The dataset contains information on the public finances of central governments. To make such information comparable cross-nationally we have chosen to normalize nominal revenue figures in two ways: (i) as a share of the total budget, and (ii) as a share of total gross domestic product. The total tax revenue of the central state is disaggregated guided by the Government Finance Statistics Manual 2001 of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) which provides a classification of types of revenue, and describes in detail the contents of each classification category. Given the paucity of detailed historical data and the needs of our project, we combined some subcategories. First, we are interested in total tax revenue (centaxtot), as well as the shares of total revenue coming from direct (centaxdirectsh) and indirect (centaxindirectsh) taxes. Further, we measure two sub-categories of direct taxation, namely taxes on property (centaxpropertysh) and income (centaxincomesh). For indirect taxes, we separate excises (centaxexcisesh), consumption (centaxconssh), and customs(centaxcustomssh).

The square meter price of an apartment in Greater Santiago, Chile, ranged between ***** U.S. dollars and ***** U.S. dollars in June 2022, depending on the apartment size. Larger apartments tended to be more expensive, with those between ** and *** square meters selling for an average of ***** U.S. dollars per square meter.