The statistic shows the distribution of the workforce across economic sectors in China from 2014 to 2024. In 2024, around 22.2 percent of the workforce were employed in the agricultural sector, 29 percent in the industrial sector and 48.8 percent in the service sector. In 2022, the share of agriculture had increased for the first time in more than two decades, which highlights the difficult situation of the labor market due to the pandemic and economic downturn at the end of the year. Distribution of the workforce in China In 2012, China became the largest exporting country worldwide with an export value of about two trillion U.S. dollars. China’s economic system is largely based on growth and export, with the manufacturing sector being a crucial contributor to the country’s export competitiveness. Economic development was accompanied by a steady rise of labor costs, as well as a significant slowdown in labor force growth. These changes present a serious threat to the era of China as the world’s factory. The share of workforce in agriculture also steadily decreased in China until 2021, while the agricultural gross production value displayed continuous growth, amounting to approximately 7.8 trillion yuan in 2021. Development of the service sector Since 2011, the largest share of China’s labor force has been employed in the service sector. However, compared with developed countries, such as Japan or the United States, where 73 and 79 percent of the work force were active in services in 2023 respectively, the proportion of people working in the tertiary sector in China has been relatively low. The Chinese government aims to continue economic reform by moving from an emphasis on investment to consumption, among other measures. This might lead to a stronger service economy. Meanwhile, the size of the urban middle class in China is growing steadily. A growing number of affluent middle class consumers could promote consumption and help China move towards a balanced economy.

In 2024, the employment rate in China decreased to around 62.4 percent, from 62.8 percent in the previous year. China is the world’s most populous country and its rapid economic development over the past decades has profited greatly from its large labor market. While the overall working conditions for the Chinese people are improving, the actual size of the working-age population in China has been shrinking steadily in recent years. This is mainly due to a low birth rate in the country. Economic slowdown – impact on labor market After decades of rapid development, the world’s second largest economy now seems to have difficulties to boost its economy further. The GDP growth rate indicated a declining trend over the last decade and the number of employed people decreased for the first time since decades in 2015. Under the influence of the global economic downturn, the coronavirus pandemic, and the US-China tensions, many Chinese enterprises are having tough times, which leads to a recession in China’s labor market. Chances for better employment situation The long-lasting Sino-U.S. trade war has caused China great loss on its international trade sector, which has been driving China’s economic growth for decades. However, there is also a lot China could improve. First, the potential of domestic demands could be further developed and satisfied with high-quality products. Second, it’s a good timing to eliminate backward industries with low value added, and the high-tech and environment-friendly industries should be further promoted. In addition, China’s market could be more open to services, especially in the financial sector and IT services, to attract more foreign investors. Highly skilled talents should be better valued in the labor market. Efficient vocational education and further education could also help change the structure of China’s labor market.

China Total Employment data was reported at 733,510.000 Person th in 2022. This records a decrease from the previous number of 746,520.000 Person th for 2021. China Total Employment data is updated yearly, averaging 746,470.000 Person th from Dec 1990 (Median) to 2022, with 33 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 763,490.000 Person th in 2014 and a record low of 647,490.000 Person th in 1990. China Total Employment data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. The data is categorized under Global Database’s China – Table CN.OECD.MSTI: Population, Labour Force and Employment: Non OECD Member: Annual.

The national breakdown by source of funds does not fully match with the classification defined in the Frascati Manual. The R&D financed by the government, business enterprises, and by the rest of the world can be retrieved but part of the expenditure has no specific source of financing, i.e. self-raised funding (in particular for independent research institutions), the funds from the higher education sector and left-over government grants from previous years.

The government and higher education sectors cover all fields of NSE and SSH while the business enterprise sector only covers the fields of NSE. There are only few organisations in the private non-profit sector, hence no R&D survey has been carried out in this sector and the data are not available.

From 2009, researcher data are collected according to the Frascati Manual definition of researcher. Beforehand, this was only the case for independent research institutions, while for the other sectors data were collected according to the UNESCO concept of “scientist and engineer”.

In 2009, the survey coverage in the business and the government sectors has been expanded.

Before 2000, all of the personnel data and 95% of the expenditure data in the business enterprise sector are for large and medium-sized enterprises only. Since 2000 however, the survey covers almost all industries and all enterprises above a certain threshold. In 2000 and 2004, a census of all enterprises was held, while in the intermediate years data for small enterprises are estimated.

Due to the reform of the S&T system some government institutions have become enterprises, and their R&D data have been reflected in the Business Enterprise sector since 2000.

Hong Kong Employment: All Industry Sectors data was reported at 2,871,540.000 Person in Jun 2018. This records an increase from the previous number of 2,867,383.000 Person for Mar 2018. Hong Kong Employment: All Industry Sectors data is updated quarterly, averaging 2,294,646.500 Person from Mar 1980 (Median) to Jun 2018, with 154 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 2,871,540.000 Person in Jun 2018 and a record low of 1,750,442.000 Person in Mar 1980. Hong Kong Employment: All Industry Sectors data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by Census and Statistics Department. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Hong Kong SAR – Table HK.G033: Employment: Quarterly Survey of Employment and Vacancies: by Industry: HSIC 2.0.

According to preliminary data, the agricultural sector contributed around 6.8 percent to the gross domestic product (GDP) of China in 2024, whereas 36.5 percent of the economic value added originated from the industrial sector and 54.6 percent from the service sector, respectively. The total GDP of China at current prices amounted to approximately 134.91 trillion yuan in 2024. Economic development in China The gross domestic product (GDP) serves as a primary indicator to measure the economic performance of a country or a region. It is generally defined as the monetary value of all finished goods and services produced within a country in a specific period of time. It includes all of private and public spending, government spending, investments, and net exports which are calculated as total exports minus imports. In other words, GDP represents the size of the economy.With its national economy growing at an exceptional annual growth rate of above nine percent for three decades in succession, China had become the worlds’ second largest economy by 2010, surpassing all other economies but the United States. Even though China's GDP growth has cooled down in recent years, its economy still expanded at roughly two times the pace of the United States in 2024. Breakdown of GDP in China When compared to other developed countries, the proportions of agriculture and industry in China's GDP are significantly higher. Even though agriculture is a major industry in the United States, it only accounted for about one percent of the economy in 2023. While the service sector contributed to more than 70 percent of the economy in most developed countries, it's share was considerably lower in China. This was not only due to China's lower development level, but also to the country’s focus on manufacturing and export. However, as the future limitations of this growth model become more and more apparent, China is trying to shift it's economic focus to the high-tech and service sectors. Accordingly, growth rates of the service sector have been considerably higher than in industry and agriculture in the years before the spread of the coronavirus pandemic.

In 2023, 43.51 percent of the workforce in India were employed in agriculture, while the other half was almost evenly distributed among the two other sectors, industry and services. While the share of Indians working in agriculture is declining, it is still the main sector of employment. A BRIC powerhouseTogether with Brazil, Russia, and China, India makes up the four so-called BRIC countries. They are the four fastest-growing emerging countries dubbed BRIC, an acronym, by Jim O’Neill at Goldman Sachs. Being major economies themselves already, these four countries are said to be at a similar economic developmental stage -- on the verge of becoming industrialized countries -- and maybe even dominating the global economy. Together, they are already larger than the rest of the world when it comes to GDP and simple population figures. Among these four, India is ranked second across almost all key indicators, right behind China. Services on the riseWhile most of the Indian workforce is still employed in the agricultural sector, it is the services sector that generates most of the country’s GDP. In fact, when looking at GDP distribution across economic sectors, agriculture lags behind with a mere 15 percent contribution. Some of the leading services industries are telecommunications, software, textiles, and chemicals, and production only seems to increase – currently, the GDP in India is growing, as is employment.

China BERD: % of Value Added data was reported at 2.295 % in 2021. This records an increase from the previous number of 2.281 % for 2020. China BERD: % of Value Added data is updated yearly, averaging 1.125 % from Dec 1991 (Median) to 2021, with 31 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 2.295 % in 2021 and a record low of 0.268 % in 1996. China BERD: % of Value Added data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. The data is categorized under Global Database’s China – Table CN.OECD.MSTI: Business Enterprise Investment on Research and Development: Non OECD Member: Annual.

Definition of MSTI variables 'Value Added of Industry' and 'Industrial Employment':

R&D data are typically expressed as a percentage of GDP to allow cross-country comparisons. When compiling such indicators for the business enterprise sector, one may wish to exclude, from GDP measures, economic activities for which the Business R&D (BERD) is null or negligible by definition. By doing so, the adjusted denominator (GDP, or Value Added, excluding non-relevant industries) better correspond to the numerator (BERD) with which it is compared to.

The MSTI variable 'Value added in industry' is used to this end:

It is calculated as the total Gross Value Added (GVA) excluding 'real estate activities' (ISIC rev.4 68) where the 'imputed rent of owner-occupied dwellings', specific to the framework of the System of National Accounts, represents a significant share of total GVA and has no R&D counterpart. Moreover, the R&D performed by the community, social and personal services is mainly driven by R&D performers other than businesses.

Consequently, the following service industries are also excluded: ISIC rev.4 84 to 88 and 97 to 98. GVA data are presented at basic prices except for the People's Republic of China, Japan and New Zealand (expressed at producers' prices).In the same way, some indicators on R&D personnel in the business sector are expressed as a percentage of industrial employment. The latter corresponds to total employment excluding ISIC rev.4 68, 84 to 88 and 97 to 98.

The graph shows the number of employed people in China from 2014 to 2024. In 2024, the workforce in China amounted to around 734.4 million people. This marked an annual decrease of six million and is in line with a general downward trend since 2014. Workforce in China China’s total population has been declining since 2022 and dropped by 1.4 million annually to around 1.408 billion as of the end of 2024. This development is also reflected in the number of people in working age which has been shrinking since 2014. The labor force of China, which refers to the population aged 16 and over and capable of working, has been declining since 2016 and ranged at around 772.2 million in 2023. Out of the total number of employed people in 2023, about 470.3 million people were employed in urban areas, while 270.1 million people were working in rural areas. Distribution of the workforce The share of the workforce employed in the primary sector declined significantly from 36.7 percent in 2010 to 22.8 percent in 2023, only interrupted in 2022 by effects related to the COVID-19 pandemic. While the percentage of people employed in the primary sector decreased, the tertiary sector gained importance. As of 2023, about 29.1 percent of Chinese workers were employed in secondary and 48.1 percent in tertiary industries. The share of the workforce employed in the secondary sector increased until 2012 but decreased thereafter due to China's shift towards a service driven economy.

Quantifying the spatial distribution of employment is critical for urban planning and economic modelling. Despite the extensive focus in previous studies on economic output and settlement patterns, the spatial distribution of employment has been largely overlooked. To address this gap, we developed a county-level employment dataset across 9 sectors for China in 2020, using a Linear Programming algorithm.

China Logistics Prosperity Index: Employment data was reported at 51.400 % in Sep 2023. This records an increase from the previous number of 48.300 % for Aug 2023. China Logistics Prosperity Index: Employment data is updated monthly, averaging 50.750 % from Dec 2011 (Median) to Sep 2023, with 124 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 56.900 % in Apr 2015 and a record low of 30.100 % in Feb 2020. China Logistics Prosperity Index: Employment data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by China Federation of Logistics & Purchasing. The data is categorized under China Premium Database’s Transportation and Storage Sector – Table CN.TL: Logistics Prosperity Index(LPI).

Correlations between public and private employment sizes and GDP.

Public sector employment in China has exhibited pronounced non-cyclical characteristics, with a recruiting scale and wage level showing limited responsiveness to economic fluctuations. The allure of civil service jobs in China has seen a significant resurgence post-COVID-19, with an observable increase in demand among educated job seekers for stable government positions amid growing economic uncertainties. This study investigates the implications of public sector employment rigidity on macroeconomic stability using a dynamic stochastic general equilibrium (DSGE) model integrated with search and matching (S&M) theory. Simulations incorporating alternative government job policies reveal that non-cyclical public employment exacerbates macroeconomic cyclical fluctuations. The low elasticity of public sector wages with respect to corporate wages fosters stable expectations among workers regarding the future value of government jobs, increasing the perceived value of the current state of unemployment. This leads job seekers to voluntarily remain unemployed, reducing labor supply to firms. Meantime, it preserves workers’ bargaining power with firms, reinforcing wage stickiness and undermining the stabilizing role of price adjustments in employment. Hypothetical scenario analyses indicate that adopting a pro-cyclical wage policy for the public sector can mitigate the obstacles of wage cuts for firms, stimulate the creation of new jobs during economic downturns, and consequently reduce the magnitude and duration of rising unemployment rates. In contrast, maintaining a non-cyclical public sector wage may not prevent a continuous rise in unemployment or a worsening economic situation, even with expanded sector recruitment. This finding holds significant relevance in the context of the post-COVID era characterized by an economic slump and employment tension, providing theoretical support for establishing a transparent and flexible wage adjustment mechanism in the public sector that is linked to market conditions.

Volatility of employment and output simulations under various policy regimes.

By the end of 2023, around **** million people were employed in the manufacturing sector in Shenzhen. The manufacturing sector was the sector with the largest number of employees in Shenzhen. Shenzhen was one of China's first Special Economic Zones and it's today still one of the most economically active cities in China.

According to a 2021 survey on the future of work in China, respondents overall felt that technology will have a positive impact on future jobs across various sectors of the economy. The asset management sector had the most positive outlook, with ** percent of respondents reporting that technology will improve future jobs.

In 2023, China's labor force amounted to approximately 772.2 million people. The labor force in China indicated a general decreasing trend in recent years. As both the size of the population in working age and the share of the population participating in the labor market are declining, this downward trend will most likely persist in the foreseeable future. A country’s labor force is defined as the total number of employable people and incorporates both the employed and the unemployed population. Population challenges for China One of the reasons for the shrinking labor force is the Chinese one-child policy, which had been in effect for nearly 40 years, until it was revoked in 2016. The controversial policy was intended to improve people’s living standards and optimize resource distribution through controlling the size of China’s expanding population. Nonetheless, the policy also led to negative impacts on the labor market, pension system and other societal aspects. Today, China is becoming an aging society. The increase of elderly people and the lack of young people will become a big challenge for China in this century. Employment in China Despite the slowing down of economic growth, China’s unemployment rate has sustained a relatively low rate. Complete production chains and a well-educated labor force make China’s labor market one of the most attractive in the world. Working conditions and salaries in China have also improved significantly over the past years. Due to China’s leading position in terms of talent in the technology industry, the country is now attracting investment from some of the world’s leading companies in the high-tech sector.

Hong Kong Employment: CS: Public Sector: Building data was reported at 22,103.000 Person in Jun 2018. This records a decrease from the previous number of 22,491.000 Person for Mar 2018. Hong Kong Employment: CS: Public Sector: Building data is updated quarterly, averaging 11,638.000 Person from Mar 2000 (Median) to Jun 2018, with 74 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 29,316.000 Person in Mar 2000 and a record low of 6,850.000 Person in Dec 2006. Hong Kong Employment: CS: Public Sector: Building data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by Census and Statistics Department. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Hong Kong SAR – Table HK.G033: Employment: Quarterly Survey of Employment and Vacancies: by Industry: HSIC 2.0.

Demographic detail of the participants.

Measurement of research model with factor loading and VIF values.

When permitted by law, employers sometimes state the preferred age and gender of their employees in job ads. The researchers study the interaction of advertised requests for age and gender on one Mexican and three Chinese job boards, showing that firms’ explicit gender requests shift dramatically away from women and towards men when firms are seeking older (as opposed to younger) workers. This ‘age twist’ in advertised gender preferences occurs in all four of our datasets and survives controls for occupation, firm, and job title fixed effects. Chinese Data The two new Chinese data sources used are job boards serving the city of Xiamen. In part because Xiamen was one of the five economic zones established immediately after China’s 1979 economic reforms, it is highly modernized relative to other Chinese cities, with an economy based on electronics, machinery and chemical engineering. One of these job boards, XMZYJS (the Xia-Zhang-Quan city public job board) is operated directly by government employees of the local labor bureau. Like state-operated Job Centers in the U.S., XMZYJS has a history as a brick-and-mortar employment service. XMZYJS’s mandate is to serve the less-skilled portion of the area’s labor market, and operates purely as a jobposting service: workers cannot post resumes or apply to jobs on the site. In fact, while XMZYJS now posts all its job ads online, many of these ads are viewed in XMZYJS‘s offices by workers who visit in person. This is done both on individual computer terminals and on a large electronic wall display. Applications are made by calling the company that placed the ad or by coming to a specific window on XMZYJS’s premises that has been reserved by the employer at a posted date and time. The second Xiamen-based job board, XMRC , is a for-profit, privately-operated company that is sponsored by the local government. Its mandate is to serve the market for skilled workers in the Xiamen metropolitan area. XMRC operates like a typical U.S. job board: both job ads and resumes are posted online, workers can submit applications to specific jobs via the site, and firms can contact individual workers through the site as well. By design, XMZYJS aggregates job postings from all local and specialized job boards for less-skilled workers in the metropolitan area, and XMRC is the main job board for skilled workers in the area. While there is potentially some cross-posting of job ads across the two sites, descriptive statistics on the types of jobs on offer suggest the sites do, indeed, serve very different populations. Like all our data sets, XMZYJS and XMRC serve private sector employers almost exclusively. Recruiting for public sector jobs, and most recruiting for State-Owned-Enterprises (SOEs) takes place via a different process. The third Chinese database represents Zhaopin as the third-largest Internet job board in China; it operates nationally and serves workers who on average are considerably more skilled than even those on XMRC. This sample is based on all unique ads posted in four five-week observation periods in 2008-2010. In contrast to XMRC and XMZYJS where the data were supplied by the job boards, the Zhaopin data were collected by a web crawler. The sample is based on all unique ads posted in four five-week observation periods in 2008-2010. The Chinese data have 141,188, 39,727, and 1,051,038 ads in the XMZYJS, XMRC and Zhaopin samples respectively. Mexican Data The Mexican data allows to ascertain whether main results extend to a nation with different economic conditions, labor market institutions and culture. The Mexican data is a sample of job ads posted on Computrabajo. Of the new data sets explored, the Computrabajo data are most similar to Zhaopin in the sense that they come from a national online site that disproportionately serves highly skilled workers. To construct an analysis sample from the Computrabajo website, the authors collected advertisements daily for approximately 18 months between early 2011 and mid-2012 using a web crawler. Both the standardized fields and the open text portions of each ad were parsed to extract variables for the analysis. Computrabajo analysis sample contains 90,487 ads.