What is Pandas?

Pandas is a Python library used for working with data sets.

It has functions for analyzing, cleaning, exploring, and manipulating data.

The name "Pandas" has a reference to both "Panel Data", and "Python Data Analysis" and was created by Wes McKinney in 2008.

Why Use Pandas?

Pandas allows us to analyze big data and make conclusions based on statistical theories.

Pandas can clean messy data sets, and make them readable and relevant.

Relevant data is very important in data science.

What Can Pandas Do?

Pandas gives you answers about the data. Like:

Is there a correlation between two or more columns?

What is average value?

Max value?

Min value?

This dataset helps you to increase the data-cleaning process using the pure python pandas library.

Indicators

1. Age
2. Salary
3. Rating
4. Location
5. Established
6. Easy Apply

Dataset

This dataset was created by Muhammad Altaf Khan

Contents

This dataset is designed specifically for beginners and intermediate learners to practice data cleaning techniques using Python and Pandas.

It includes 500 rows of simulated employee data with intentional errors such as:

Missing values in Age and Salary

Typos in email addresses (@gamil.com)

Inconsistent city name casing (e.g., lahore, Karachi)

Extra spaces in department names (e.g., " HR ")

✅ Skills You Can Practice:

Detecting and handling missing data

String cleaning and formatting

Removing duplicates

Validating email formats

Standardizing categorical data

You can use this dataset to build your own data cleaning notebook, or use it in interviews, assessments, and tutorials.

Data analysis enthusiast diving into the world of Pandas. Making mistakes and learning every step of the way. Come join me on my journey!

Part of the dissertation Pitch of Voiced Speech in the Short-Time Fourier Transform: Algorithms, Ground Truths, and Evaluation Methods.© 2020, Bastian Bechtold. All rights reserved. Estimating the fundamental frequency of speech remains an active area of research, with varied applications in speech recognition, speaker identification, and speech compression. A vast number of algorithms for estimatimating this quantity have been proposed over the years, and a number of speech and noise corpora have been developed for evaluating their performance. The present dataset contains estimated fundamental frequency tracks of 25 algorithms, six speech corpora, two noise corpora, at nine signal-to-noise ratios between -20 and 20 dB SNR, as well as an additional evaluation of synthetic harmonic tone complexes in white noise.The dataset also contains pre-calculated performance measures both novel and traditional, in reference to each speech corpus’ ground truth, the algorithms’ own clean-speech estimate, and our own consensus truth. It can thus serve as the basis for a comparison study, or to replicate existing studies from a larger dataset, or as a reference for developing new fundamental frequency estimation algorithms. All source code and data is available to download, and entirely reproducible, albeit requiring about one year of processor-time.Included Code and Data

ground truth data.zip is a JBOF dataset of fundamental frequency estimates and ground truths of all speech files in the following corpora:

CMU-ARCTIC (consensus truth) [1]FDA (corpus truth and consensus truth) [2]KEELE (corpus truth and consensus truth) [3]MOCHA-TIMIT (consensus truth) [4]PTDB-TUG (corpus truth and consensus truth) [5]TIMIT (consensus truth) [6]

noisy speech data.zip is a JBOF datasets of fundamental frequency estimates of speech files mixed with noise from the following corpora:NOISEX [7]QUT-NOISE [8]

synthetic speech data.zip is a JBOF dataset of fundamental frequency estimates of synthetic harmonic tone complexes in white noise.noisy_speech.pkl and synthetic_speech.pkl are pickled Pandas dataframes of performance metrics derived from the above data for the following list of fundamental frequency estimation algorithms:AUTOC [9]AMDF [10]BANA [11]CEP [12]CREPE [13]DIO [14]DNN [15]KALDI [16]MAPSMBSC [17]NLS [18]PEFAC [19]PRAAT [20]RAPT [21]SACC [22]SAFE [23]SHR [24]SIFT [25]SRH [26]STRAIGHT [27]SWIPE [28]YAAPT [29]YIN [30]

noisy speech evaluation.py and synthetic speech evaluation.py are Python programs to calculate the above Pandas dataframes from the above JBOF datasets. They calculate the following performance measures:Gross Pitch Error (GPE), the percentage of pitches where the estimated pitch deviates from the true pitch by more than 20%.Fine Pitch Error (FPE), the mean error of grossly correct estimates.High/Low Octave Pitch Error (OPE), the percentage pitches that are GPEs and happens to be at an integer multiple of the true pitch.Gross Remaining Error (GRE), the percentage of pitches that are GPEs but not OPEs.Fine Remaining Bias (FRB), the median error of GREs.True Positive Rate (TPR), the percentage of true positive voicing estimates.False Positive Rate (FPR), the percentage of false positive voicing estimates.False Negative Rate (FNR), the percentage of false negative voicing estimates.F₁, the harmonic mean of precision and recall of the voicing decision.

Pipfile is a pipenv-compatible pipfile for installing all prerequisites necessary for running the above Python programs.

The Python programs take about an hour to compute on a fast 2019 computer, and require at least 32 Gb of memory.References:

John Kominek and Alan W Black. CMU ARCTIC database for speech synthesis, 2003.Paul C Bagshaw, Steven Hiller, and Mervyn A Jack. Enhanced Pitch Tracking and the Processing of F0 Contours for Computer Aided Intonation Teaching. In EUROSPEECH, 1993.F Plante, Georg F Meyer, and William A Ainsworth. A Pitch Extraction Reference Database. In Fourth European Conference on Speech Communication and Technology, pages 837–840, Madrid, Spain, 1995.Alan Wrench. MOCHA MultiCHannel Articulatory database: English, November 1999.Gregor Pirker, Michael Wohlmayr, Stefan Petrik, and Franz Pernkopf. A Pitch Tracking Corpus with Evaluation on Multipitch Tracking Scenario. page 4, 2011.John S. Garofolo, Lori F. Lamel, William M. Fisher, Jonathan G. Fiscus, David S. Pallett, Nancy L. Dahlgren, and Victor Zue. TIMIT Acoustic-Phonetic Continuous Speech Corpus, 1993.Andrew Varga and Herman J.M. Steeneken. Assessment for automatic speech recognition: II. NOISEX-92: A database and an experiment to study the effect of additive noise on speech recog- nition systems. Speech Communication, 12(3):247–251, July 1993.David B. Dean, Sridha Sridharan, Robert J. Vogt, and Michael W. Mason. The QUT-NOISE-TIMIT corpus for the evaluation of voice activity detection algorithms. Proceedings of Interspeech 2010, 2010.Man Mohan Sondhi. New methods of pitch extraction. Audio and Electroacoustics, IEEE Transactions on, 16(2):262—266, 1968.Myron J. Ross, Harry L. Shaffer, Asaf Cohen, Richard Freudberg, and Harold J. Manley. Average magnitude difference function pitch extractor. Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing, IEEE Transactions on, 22(5):353—362, 1974.Na Yang, He Ba, Weiyang Cai, Ilker Demirkol, and Wendi Heinzelman. BaNa: A Noise Resilient Fundamental Frequency Detection Algorithm for Speech and Music. IEEE/ACM Transactions on Audio, Speech, and Language Processing, 22(12):1833–1848, December 2014.Michael Noll. Cepstrum Pitch Determination. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 41(2):293–309, 1967.Jong Wook Kim, Justin Salamon, Peter Li, and Juan Pablo Bello. CREPE: A Convolutional Representation for Pitch Estimation. arXiv:1802.06182 [cs, eess, stat], February 2018. arXiv: 1802.06182.Masanori Morise, Fumiya Yokomori, and Kenji Ozawa. WORLD: A Vocoder-Based High-Quality Speech Synthesis System for Real-Time Applications. IEICE Transactions on Information and Systems, E99.D(7):1877–1884, 2016.Kun Han and DeLiang Wang. Neural Network Based Pitch Tracking in Very Noisy Speech. IEEE/ACM Transactions on Audio, Speech, and Language Processing, 22(12):2158–2168, Decem- ber 2014.Pegah Ghahremani, Bagher BabaAli, Daniel Povey, Korbinian Riedhammer, Jan Trmal, and Sanjeev Khudanpur. A pitch extraction algorithm tuned for automatic speech recognition. In Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing (ICASSP), 2014 IEEE International Conference on, pages 2494–2498. IEEE, 2014.Lee Ngee Tan and Abeer Alwan. Multi-band summary correlogram-based pitch detection for noisy speech. Speech Communication, 55(7-8):841–856, September 2013.Jesper Kjær Nielsen, Tobias Lindstrøm Jensen, Jesper Rindom Jensen, Mads Græsbøll Christensen, and Søren Holdt Jensen. Fast fundamental frequency estimation: Making a statistically efficient estimator computationally efficient. Signal Processing, 135:188–197, June 2017.Sira Gonzalez and Mike Brookes. PEFAC - A Pitch Estimation Algorithm Robust to High Levels of Noise. IEEE/ACM Transactions on Audio, Speech, and Language Processing, 22(2):518—530, February 2014.Paul Boersma. Accurate short-term analysis of the fundamental frequency and the harmonics-to-noise ratio of a sampled sound. In Proceedings of the institute of phonetic sciences, volume 17, page 97—110. Amsterdam, 1993.David Talkin. A robust algorithm for pitch tracking (RAPT). Speech coding and synthesis, 495:518, 1995.Byung Suk Lee and Daniel PW Ellis. Noise robust pitch tracking by subband autocorrelation classification. In Interspeech, pages 707–710, 2012.Wei Chu and Abeer Alwan. SAFE: a statistical algorithm for F0 estimation for both clean and noisy speech. In INTERSPEECH, pages 2590–2593, 2010.Xuejing Sun. Pitch determination and voice quality analysis using subharmonic-to-harmonic ratio. In Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing (ICASSP), 2002 IEEE International Conference on, volume 1, page I—333. IEEE, 2002.Markel. The SIFT algorithm for fundamental frequency estimation. IEEE Transactions on Audio and Electroacoustics, 20(5):367—377, December 1972.Thomas Drugman and Abeer Alwan. Joint Robust Voicing Detection and Pitch Estimation Based on Residual Harmonics. In Interspeech, page 1973—1976, 2011.Hideki Kawahara, Masanori Morise, Toru Takahashi, Ryuichi Nisimura, Toshio Irino, and Hideki Banno. TANDEM-STRAIGHT: A temporally stable power spectral representation for periodic signals and applications to interference-free spectrum, F0, and aperiodicity estimation. In Acous- tics, Speech and Signal Processing, 2008. ICASSP 2008. IEEE International Conference on, pages 3933–3936. IEEE, 2008.Arturo Camacho. SWIPE: A sawtooth waveform inspired pitch estimator for speech and music. PhD thesis, University of Florida, 2007.Kavita Kasi and Stephen A. Zahorian. Yet Another Algorithm for Pitch Tracking. In IEEE International Conference on Acoustics Speech and Signal Processing, pages I–361–I–364, Orlando, FL, USA, May 2002. IEEE.Alain de Cheveigné and Hideki Kawahara. YIN, a fundamental frequency estimator for speech and music. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 111(4):1917, 2002.

Columns Definition and Information of the data set

The auction dataset is a really small data set ( 19 items) which is being created for the sole purpose of learning pandas library.

The auction data set contains 5 columns :

1. Item :Gives the description of what items are being sold. 2. Bidding Price : Gives the price at which the item will start being sold at. 3. Selling Price : The selling price tells us at which amount the item was sold. 4. Calls :Calls indicate the number of times the items value was raised or decreased by the customer. 5. Bought By : Gives us the idea which customer bought the item.

Note: There are missing values, which we will try to fill. And yes some values might not make sense once we make those imputations, but this notebook is for the sole purpose of learning.

Reddit is a social news, content rating and discussion website. It's one of the most popular sites on the internet. Reddit has 52 million daily active users and approximately 430 million users who use it once a month. Reddit has different subreddits and here We'll use the r/AskScience Subreddit.

The dataset is extracted from the subreddit /r/AskScience from Reddit. The data was collected between 01-01-2016 and 20-05-2022. It contains 612,668 Datapoints and 25 Columns. The database contains a number of information about the questions asked on the subreddit, the description of the submission, the flair of the question, NSFW or SFW status, the year of the submission, and more. The data is extracted using python and Pushshift's API. A little bit of cleaning is done using NumPy and pandas as well. (see the descriptions of individual columns below).

The dataset contains the following columns and descriptions: author - Redditor Name author_fullname - Redditor Full name contest_mode - Contest mode [implement obscured scores and randomized sorting]. created_utc - Time the submission was created, represented in Unix Time. domain - Domain of submission. edited - If the post is edited or not. full_link - Link of the post on the subreddit. id - ID of the submission. is_self - Whether or not the submission is a self post (text-only). link_flair_css_class - CSS Class used to identify the flair. link_flair_text - Flair on the post or The link flair’s text content. locked - Whether or not the submission has been locked. num_comments - The number of comments on the submission. over_18 - Whether or not the submission has been marked as NSFW. permalink - A permalink for the submission. retrieved_on - time ingested. score - The number of upvotes for the submission. description - Description of the Submission. spoiler - Whether or not the submission has been marked as a spoiler. stickied - Whether or not the submission is stickied. thumbnail - Thumbnail of Submission. question - Question Asked in the Submission. url - The URL the submission links to, or the permalink if a self post. year - Year of the Submission. banned - Banned by the moderator or not.

This dataset can be used for Flair Prediction, NSFW Classification, and different Text Mining/NLP tasks. Exploratory Data Analysis can also be done to get the insights and see the trend and patterns over the years.

This S&M-HSTPM2d5 dataset contains the high spatial and temporal resolution of the particulates (PM2.5) measures with the corresponding timestamp and GPS location of mobile and static devices in the three Chinese cities: Foshan, Cangzhou, and Tianjin. Different numbers of static and mobile devices were set up in each city. The sampling rate was set up as one minute in Cangzhou, and three seconds in Foshan and Tianjin. For the specific detail of the setup, please refer to the Device_Setup_Description.txt file in this repository and the data descriptor paper.

After the data collection process, the data cleaning process was performed to remove and adjust the abnormal and drifting data. The script of the data cleaning algorithm is provided in this repository. The data cleaning algorithm only adjusts or removes individual data points. The removal of the entire device's data was done after the data cleaning algorithm with empirical judgment and graphic visualization. For specific detail of the data cleaning process, please refer to the script (Data_cleaning_algorithm.ipynb) in this repository and the data descriptor paper.

The dataset in this repository is the processed version. The raw dataset and removed devices are not included in this repository.

The data is stored as a CSV file. Each CSV file which is named by the device ID represents the data that was collected by the corresponding device. Each CSV file has three types of data: timestamp as the China Standard Time (GMT+8), geographic location as latitude and longitude, and PM2.5 concentration with the unit of microgram per cubic meter. The CSV files are stored in either Static or Mobile folder which represents the devices' type. The Static and Mobile folder are stored in the corresponding city's folder.

To access the dataset, any programming language that can access CSV files is appropriate. Users can also open the CSV file directly. The get_dataset.ipynb file in this repository also provides an option of accessing the dataset. To successfully execute ipynb file, Jupyter Notebook with Python 3.0 is required. The following python library is also required:

get_dataset.ipynb: 1. os library 2. pandas library

Data_cleaning_algorithm.ipynb: 1. os library 2. pandas library 3. datetime library 4. math library

The instruction of installing the libraries above can be found online. After installing the Jupyter Notebook with Python 3.0 and the required libraries, users can try to open the ipynb file with Jupyter Notebook and follow the instruction inside the file.

For questions or suggestions please e-mail Xinlei Chen

This project focuses on data mapping, integration, and analysis to support the development and enhancement of six UNCDF operational applications: OrgTraveler, Comms Central, Internal Support Hub, Partnership 360, SmartHR, and TimeTrack. These apps streamline workflows for travel claims, internal support, partnership management, and time tracking within UNCDF.Key Features and Tools:Data Mapping for Salesforce CRM Migration: Structured and mapped data flows to ensure compatibility and seamless migration to Salesforce CRM.Python for Data Cleaning and Transformation: Utilized pandas, numpy, and APIs to clean, preprocess, and transform raw datasets into standardized formats.Power BI Dashboards: Designed interactive dashboards to visualize workflows and monitor performance metrics for decision-making.Collaboration Across Platforms: Integrated Google Collab for code collaboration and Microsoft Excel for data validation and analysis.

Vrbo is a synthetic dataset designed to simulate real-world, messy data scenarios for pandas-based data cleaning and analysis practice.

Though the data is artificial, it mimics common patterns seen in business datasets, including:

1. Mixed data types
2. Incomplete or missing entries
3. Duplicates, inconsistencies, and formatting issues
4. Potential key metrics hidden across columns

Description

This dataset is used to check criticon prompts/responses while testing, it contains instructions/responses from mt_bench_eval, as extracted from: https://github.com/kaistAI/prometheus/blob/main/evaluation/benchmark/data/mt_bench_eval.json The dataset has been obtained cleaning the data with: import re import pandas as pd from datasets import Dataset

df = pd.read_json("mt_bench_eval.json", lines=True)

ds = Dataset.from_pandas(df, preserve_index=False)… See the full description on the dataset page: https://huggingface.co/datasets/distilabel-internal-testing/mt-bench-eval-critique.

Cooperation involves the challenge of jointly selecting one from multiple goals while maintaining the team’s joint commitment to it. We test joint commitment in a multi-player hunting game, combining psychophysics and computational modeling. Joint commitment is modeled through an "Imagined We" (IW) approach, where each agent uses Bayesian inference to infer the intention of “We†, an imagined supraindividual agent controlling all agents as its body parts. This is compared against a Reward Sharing (RS) model, which frames cooperation through reward sharing via multi-agent reinforcement learning (MARL). Both humans and IW, but not RS, maintained high performance by jointly committing to a single prey, regardless of prey quantity or speed. Human observers rated all hunters in both human and IW teams as making high contributions to the catch, regardless of their proximity to the prey, suggesting that high-quality hunting stemmed from sophisticated cooperation rather than individual strategie..., Data Collection:The dataset was collected through offline laboratory experiments involving human subjects, machine simulations, and human-machine collaboration. The machine simulations and collaborative tasks were based on models implemented in Python, including reinforcement learning, neural networks, and Bayesian inference. Participants engaged in tasks designed to assess cognitive processes, with data recorded in controlled laboratory conditions. Data Processing:The collected data was processed using Python’s pandas library. This involved data cleaning, transformation, and preparation for further analysis. For statistical analysis, we used the Jeffreys’s Amazing Statistics Program (JASP) software to perform various statistical tests., , # Joint Commitment in Human Cooperative Hunting through an Imagined We

https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.brv15dvjn

Location of the Data and Code

The data and code are compressed in the file ‘imaginedWeCodeRelease.zip’, which can be downloaded from the ‘Files’ tab.

Description of the data and file structure

Data Collection:

The dataset was collected through offline laboratory experiments involving human subjects, machine simulations, and human-machine collaboration . The machine simulations and collaborative were based on models implemented in Python, including reinforcement learning, neural networks, and Bayesian inference. Participants engaged in tasks designed to assess cognitive processes, with data recorded in controlled laboratory conditions.

Data Processing:

The collected data was processed using Pythons pandas library. This involved data cleaning, transformation, and preparation for further analysis. For statistical ..., All human subjects data included in this dataset were collected with the explicit informed consent of participants, including their consent to publish the de-identified data in the public domain.

To ensure anonymity, participants are identified only by the time of their participation (e.g., "20221221-1550"). The data content and file names do not contain any personally identifiable information or demographic details such as names, gender, age, or other identifying characteristics.

ObjectiveThe primary objective of this study was to analyze CpG dinucleotide dynamics in coronaviruses by comparing Wuhan-Hu-1 with its closest and most distant relatives. Heatmaps were generated to visualize CpG counts and O/E ratios across intergenic regions, providing a clear depiction of conserved and divergent CpG patterns.Methods1. Data CollectionSource : The dataset includes CpG counts and O/E ratios for various coronaviruses, extracted from publicly available genomic sequences.Format : Data was compiled into a CSV file containing columns for intergenic regions, CpG counts, and O/E ratios for each virus.2. PreprocessingData Cleaning :Missing values (NaN), infinite values (inf, -inf), and blank entries were handled using Python's pandas library.Missing values were replaced with column means, and infinite values were capped at a large finite value (1e9).Reshaping :The data was reshaped into matrices for CpG counts and O/E ratios using meltpandas[] and pivot[] functions.3. Distance CalculationEuclidean Distance :Pairwise Euclidean distances were calculated between Wuhan-Hu-1 and other viruses using the scipy.spatial.distance.euclidean function.Distances were computed separately for CpG counts and O/E ratios, and the total distance was derived as the sum of both metrics.4. Identification of Closest and Distant RelativesThe virus with the smallest total distance was identified as the closest relative .The virus with the largest total distance was identified as the most distant relative .5. Heatmap GenerationTools :Heatmaps were generated using Python's seaborn library (sns.heatmap) and matplotlib for visualization.Parameters :Heatmaps were annotated with numerical values for clarity.A color gradient (coolwarm) was used to represent varying CpG counts and O/E ratios.Titles and axis labels were added to describe the comparison between Wuhan-Hu-1 and its relatives.ResultsClosest Relative :The closest relative to Wuhan-Hu-1 was identified based on the smallest Euclidean distance.Heatmaps for CpG counts and O/E ratios show high similarity in specific intergenic regions.Most Distant Relative :The most distant relative was identified based on the largest Euclidean distance.Heatmaps reveal significant differences in CpG dynamics compared to Wuhan-Hu-1 .Tools and LibrariesThe following tools and libraries were used in this analysis:Programming Language :Python 3.13Libraries :pandas: For data manipulation and cleaning.numpy: For numerical operations and handling missing/infinite values.scipy.spatial.distance: For calculating Euclidean distances.seaborn: For generating heatmaps.matplotlib: For additional visualization enhancements.File Formats :Input: CSV files containing CpG counts and O/E ratios.Output: PNG images of heatmaps.Files IncludedCSV File :Contains the raw data of CpG counts and O/E ratios for all viruses.Heatmap Images :Heatmaps for CpG counts and O/E ratios comparing Wuhan-Hu-1 with its closest and most distant relatives.Python Script :Full Python code used for data processing, distance calculation, and heatmap generation.Usage NotesResearchers can use this dataset to further explore the evolutionary dynamics of CpG dinucleotides in coronaviruses.The Python script can be adapted to analyze other viral genomes or datasets.Heatmaps provide a visual summary of CpG dynamics, aiding in hypothesis generation and experimental design.AcknowledgmentsSpecial thanks to the open-source community for developing tools like pandas, numpy, seaborn, and matplotlib.This work was conducted as part of an independent research project in molecular biology and bioinformatics.LicenseThis dataset is shared under the CC BY 4.0 License , allowing others to share and adapt the material as long as proper attribution is given.DOI: 10.6084/m9.figshare.28736501

Our research obtained real-time information on nucleic acid testing sites through this project website (https://hsdyjc.newhealth.com.cn/wh5/#/). We collected nucleic acid test site status information 24 hours a day for 7 days from 24 October 2022 to 30 October 2022, with no Chinese holidays, to avoid the impact of holidays on the busyness of the tests. We have published the source data collected and the results of the analysis to facilitate further exploration by researchers interested in what we are studying. Each test site has a very large number of real-time statuses, and we filtered out a few pieces of information needed for the study objectives to be retained. This research has designed a specific process to deal with complex data structures, including the following steps: 1. Data collection. Data is logged hourly using the Python program's request library for nucleic acid test site data; 2. Logging the data. After obtaining the accessed data, the data is presented in json format and we save the required information in csv format; 3. Cleaning the data. We use the pandas library to filter the data and keep the ones that have data distribution within 24 hours; 4. Processing the data. The status of the data represents the busy status of the nucleic acid testing sites, where 1 represents rest (closed), 2 represents open (queue less than 15 minutes), 3 represents busy (queue 15-30 minutes) and 4 represents congested (queue greater than 30 minutes). The pandas library was used to filter the percentage of statuses 3 and 4 in the 24 hour period to represent the percentage of busy nucleic acid detection sites.

Overview
This repository contains ready-to-use frequency time series as well as the corresponding pre-processing scripts in python. The data covers three synchronous areas of the European power grid:

• Continental Europe
• Great Britain
• Nordic

This work is part of the paper "Predictability of Power Grid Frequency"[1]. Please cite this paper, when using the data and the code. For a detailed documentation of the pre-processing procedure we refer to the supplementary material of the paper.

Data sources
We downloaded the frequency recordings from publically available repositories of three different Transmission System Operators (TSOs).

• Continental Europe [2]: We downloaded the data from the German TSO TransnetBW GmbH, which retains the Copyright on the data, but allows to re-publish it upon request [3].
• Great Britain [4]: The download was supported by National Grid ESO Open Data, which belongs to the British TSO National Grid. They publish the frequency recordings under the NGESO Open License [5].
• Nordic [6]: We obtained the data from the Finish TSO Fingrid, which provides the data under the open license CC-BY 4.0 [7].

Content of the repository

A) Scripts

1. In the "Download_scripts" folder you will find three scripts to automatically download frequency data from the TSO's websites.
2. In "convert_data_format.py" we save the data with corrected timestamp formats. Missing data is marked as NaN (processing step (1) in the supplementary material of [1]).
3. In "clean_corrupted_data.py" we load the converted data and identify corrupted recordings. We mark them as NaN and clean some of the resulting data holes (processing step (2) in the supplementary material of [1]).

The python scripts run with Python 3.7 and with the packages found in "requirements.txt".

B) Data_converted and Data_cleansed
The folder "Data_converted" contains the output of "convert_data_format.py" and "Data_cleansed" contains the output of "clean_corrupted_data.py".

• File type: The files are zipped csv-files, where each file comprises one year.
• Data format: The files contain two columns. The first one represents the time stamps in the format Year-Month-Day Hour-Minute-Second, which is given as naive local time. The second column contains the frequency values in Hz.
• NaN representation: We mark corrupted and missing data as "NaN" in the csv-files.

Use cases
We point out that this repository can be used in two different was:

• Use pre-processed data: You can directly use the converted or the cleansed data. Note however that both data sets include segments of NaN-values due to missing and corrupted recordings. Only a very small part of the NaN-values were eliminated in the cleansed data to not manipulate the data too much. If your application cannot deal with NaNs, you could build upon the following commands to select the longest interval of valid data from the cleansed data:

from helper_functions import *
import pandas as pd

cleansed_data = pd.read_csv('/Path_to_cleansed_data/data.zip',
            index_col=0, header=None, squeeze=True,
            parse_dates=[0])
valid_bounds, valid_sizes = true_intervals(~cleansed_data.isnull())
start,end= valid_bounds[ np.argmax(valid_sizes) ]
data_without_nan = cleansed_data.iloc[start:end]

• Produce your own cleansed data: Depending on your application, you might want to cleanse the data in a custom way. You can easily add your custom cleansing procedure in "clean_corrupted_data.py" and then produce cleansed data from the raw data in "Data_converted".

License
We release the code in the folder "Scripts" under the MIT license [8]. In the case of Nationalgrid and Fingrid, we further release the pre-processed data in the folder "Data_converted" and "Data_cleansed" under the CC-BY 4.0 license [7]. TransnetBW originally did not publish their data under an open license. We have explicitly received the permission to publish the pre-processed version from TransnetBW. However, we cannot publish our pre-processed version under an open license due to the missing license of the original TransnetBW data.

Cooperation involves the challenge of jointly selecting one from multiple goals while maintaining the team’s joint commitment to it. We test joint commitment in a multi-player hunting game, combining psychophysics and computational modeling. Joint commitment is modeled through an "Imagined We" (IW) approach, where each agent uses Bayesian inference to infer the intention of “We”, an imagined supraindividual agent controlling all agents as its body parts. This is compared against a Reward Sharing (RS) model, which frames cooperation through reward sharing via multi-agent reinforcement learning (MARL). Both humans and IW, but not RS, maintained high performance by jointly committing to a single prey, regardless of prey quantity or speed. Human observers rated all hunters in both human and IW teams as making high contributions to the catch, regardless of their proximity to the prey, suggesting that high-quality hunting stemmed from sophisticated cooperation rather than individual strategie...

Species loss is highly scale-dependent, following the species-area relationship. We analysed spatio-temporal patterns of species’ extirpation on a multitaxonomic level using Berlin, the capital city of Germany. Berlin is one of the largest cities in Europe and has experienced a strong urbanisation trend since the late 19th century. We expected species’ extirpation to be exceptionally high due to the long history of urbanisation. Analysing regional Red Lists of Threatened Plants, Animals, and Fungi of Berlin (covering 9498 species), we found that 16 % of species were extirpated, a rate 5.9 times higher than at the German scale, and 47.1 times higher than at the European scale. Species’ extirpation in Berlin is comparable to that of another German city with a similarly broad taxonomic coverage, but much higher than in regional areas with less human impact. The documentation of species’ extirpation started in the 18th century and is well documented for the 19th and 20th centuries. We found an average annual extirpation of 3.6 species in the 19th century, 9.6 species in the 20th century, and the same number of extirpated species as in the 19th century were documented in the 21th century, despite the much shorter time period. Our results showed that species’ extirpation is higher at small than on large spatial scales, and might be negatively influenced by urbanisation, with different effects on different taxonomic groups and habitats. Over time, we found that species’ extirpation is highest during periods of high human alterations and is negatively affected by the number of people living in the city. But, there is still a lack of data to decouple the size of the area and the human impact of urbanisation. However, cities might be suitable systems for studying species’ extirpation processes due to their small scale and human impact. Methods Data extraction: To determine the proportion of extirpated species for Germany, we manually summarised the numbers of species classified in category 0 ‘extinct or extirpated’ and calculated the percentage in relation to the total number of species listed in the Red Lists of Threatened Species for Germany, taken from the website of the Red List Centre of Germany (Rote Liste Zentrum, 2024a). For Berlin, we used the 37 current Red Lists of Threatened Plants, Animals, and Fungi from the city-state of Berlin, covering the years from 2004 to 2023, taken from the official capital city portal of the Berlin Senate Department for Mobility, Transport, Climate Protection and Environment (SenMVKU, 2024a; see overview of Berlin Red Lists used in Table 1). We extracted all species that are listed as extinct/extirpated, i.e. classified in category 0, and additionally, if available, the date of the last record of the species in Berlin. The Red List of macrofungi of the order Boletales by Schmidt (2017) was not included in our study, as this Red List has only been compiled once in the frame of a pilot project and therefore lacks the category 0 ‘extinct or extirpated’. We used Python, version 3.7.9 (Van Rossum and Drake, 2009), the Python libraries Pandas (McKinney et al., 2010), and Camelot-py, version 0.11.0 (Vinayak Meta, 2023) in Jupyter Lab, version 4.0.6 (Project Jupyter, 2016) notebooks. In the first step, we created a metadata table of the Red Lists of Berlin to keep track of the extraction process, maintain the source reference links, and store summarised data from each Red List pdf file. At the extraction of each file, a data row was added to the metadata table which was updated throughout the rest of the process. In the second step, we identified the page range for extraction for each extracted Red List file. The extraction mechanism for each Red List file depended on the printed table layout. We extracted tables with lined rows with the Lattice parsing method (Camelot-py, 2024a), and tables with alternating-coloured rows with the Stream method (Camelot-py, 2024b). For proofing the consistency of extraction, we used the Camelot-py accuracy report along with the Pandas data frame shape property (Pandas, 2024). After initial data cleaning for consistent column counts and missing data, we filtered the data for species in category 0 only. We collated data frames together and exported them as a CSV file. In a further step, we proofread whether the filtered data was tallied with the summary tables, given in each Red List. Finally, we cleaned each Red List table to contain the species, the current hazard level (category 0), the date of the species’ last detection in Berlin, and the reference (codes and data available at: Github, 2023). When no date of last detection was given for a species, we contacted the authors of the respective Red Lists and/or used former Red Lists to find information on species’ last detections (Burger et al., 1998; Saure et al., 1998; 1999; Braasch et al., 2000; Saure, 2000). Determination of the recording time windows of the Berlin Red Lists We determined the time windows, the Berlin Red Lists look back on, from their methodologies. If the information was missing in the current Red Lists, we consulted the previous version (see all detailed time windows of the earliest assessments with references in Table B2 in Appendix B). Data classification: For the analyses of the percentage of species in the different hazard levels, we used the German Red List categories as described in detail by Saure and Schwarz (2005) and Ludwig et al. (2009). These are: Prewarning list, endangered (category 3), highly endangered (category 2), threatened by extinction or extirpation (category 1), and extinct or extirpated (category 0). To determine the number of indigenous unthreatened species in each Red List, we subtracted the number of species in the five categories and the number of non-indigenous species (neobiota) from the total number of species in each Red List. For further analyses, we pooled the taxonomic groups of the 37 Red Lists into more broadly defined taxonomic groups: Plants, lichens, fungi, algae, mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles, fish and lampreys, molluscs, and arthropods (see categorisation in Table 1). We categorised slime fungi (Myxomycetes including Ceratiomyxomycetes) as ‘fungi’, even though they are more closely related to animals because slime fungi are traditionally studied by mycologists (Schmidt and Täglich, 2023). We classified ‘lichens’ in a separate category, rather than in ‘fungi’, as they are a symbiotic community of fungi and algae (Krause et al., 2017). For analyses of the percentage of extirpated species of each pooled taxonomic group, we set the number of extirpated species in relation to the sum of the number of unthreatened species, species in the prewarning list, and species in the categories one to three. We further categorised the extirpated species according to the habitats in which they occurred. We therefore categorised terrestrial species as ‘terrestrial’ and aquatic species as ‘aquatic’. Amphibians and dragonflies have life stages in both, terrestrial and aquatic habitats, and were categorised as ‘terrestrial/aquatic’. We also categorised plants and mosses as ‘terrestrial/aquatic’ if they depend on wetlands (see all habitat categories for each species in Table C1 in Appendix C). The available data considering the species’ last detection in Berlin ranked from a specific year, over a period of time up to a century. If a year of last detection was given with the auxiliary ‘around’ or ‘circa’, we used for further analyses the given year for temporal classification. If a year of last detection was given with the auxiliary ‘before’ or ‘after’, we assumed that the nearest year of last detection was given and categorised the species in the respective century. In this case, we used the species for temporal analyses by centuries only, not across years. If only a timeframe was given as the date of last detection, we used the respective species for temporal analyses between centuries, only. We further classified all of the extirpated species in centuries, in which species were lastly detected: 17th century (1601-1700); 18th century (1701-1800); 19th century (1801-1900); 20th century (1901-2000); 21th century (2001-now) (see all data on species’ last detection in Table C1 in Appendix C). For analyses of the effects of the number of inhabitants on species’ extirpation in Berlin, we used species that went extirpated between the years 1920 and 2012, because of Berlin’s was expanded to ‘Groß-Berlin’ in 1920 (Buesch and Haus, 1987), roughly corresponding to the cities’ current area. Therefore, we included the number of Berlin’s inhabitants for every year a species was last detected (Statistische Jahrbücher der Stadt Berlin, 1920, 1924-1998, 2000; see all data on the number of inhabitants for each year of species’ last detection in Table C1 in Appendix C). Materials and Methods from Keinath et al. (2024): 'High levels of species’ extirpation in an urban environment – A case study from Berlin, Germany, covering 1700-2023'.

This dataset presents annual counts of threatened species from 2004 to 2023 across the top 25 countries most affected by biodiversity loss. Access Full Dataset I Hug Trees – Data Analytics Data is categorized into three groups—Vertebrates, Invertebrates, and Plants and compiled from UNdata and IUCN Red List sources. It includes country names, years, species counts, and biodiversity groupings, and is intended for use in research, education, and public awareness around global conservation priorities. Processing Summary Data Cleaning: Removed duplicates, corrected inconsistencies, and excluded continent-level entries. Categorization: Grouped species data into three broad classes. Ranking: Selected top 25 countries per category, per year, for visual clarity. Output: Generated three structured CSV files (one per group) using Python’s Pandas library. Data Structure File Format: CSV (.csv) Columns: Country – Country name Year – From 2004 to 2023 Value – Number of threatened species Group – Vertebrates, Invertebrates, or Plants Scope and Limitations Focus: National-level trends; no sub-national or habitat-specific granularity Last Updated: April 2025 Future Enhancements: May include finer taxonomic resolution and updated threat metrics Intended Uses Educational tools and biodiversity curriculum support Conservation awareness campaigns and visual storytelling Policy dashboards and SDG 15 (Life on Land) tracking Research into biodiversity trends and hotspot identification Tools & Technologies Python (Pandas): Data filtering, aggregation, and file creation Chart.js: Rendering of interactive bar charts HTML iFrames: Seamless embedding on the I Hug Trees website

Data cleaning / Files for practical learning

Randomly generated data

Data source

The data is randomly generated and not from an external source. The data do not represent parameters.

The data in the files have been stored in a structure that allows the use of basic tools created for data cleaning, e.g. 'fillna', 'dropna' functions from the pandas module. Additional information can be found in the file descriptions.

License

CC0: Public Domain