Policy interventions during the COVID-19 pandemic stabilized the municipal bond market and shifted the pricing of localized credit risks from short-maturity bonds to longer-dated bonds.

In 2023, the country that issued the highest value of sustainable bonds - either from the government or organizations domiciled in that country - was the United States, with almost 100 billion U.S. dollars of fixed income debt issued. China was second, with nearly ** billion U.S. dollars, then Germany with ** billion U.S. dollars. However, it should be noted that the balance between debt for environmental and social purposes was very different between these countries, with the majority of debt issued by France being for social purposes. If just considering the value of green bonds issued (i.e. bonds issued for environmental projects), the highest issuer in 2023 was China. The European sustainable bond market Overall, Europe is the clear leader in the sustainable bond market, having issued more sustainable bonds than any other region since 2014 (including supranational organizations). Given the sustainable bonds issued over this period were for environmental causes, the European green bond market is highly advanced. Types of sustainable bonds While green bonds are the most common type of sustainable bond, there are also social bonds which raise money for social (rather than environmental) causes. In addition, there is the broader category of sustainable bonds, which are for a combination of both social and environmental causes. The category of what is a social cause is somewhat broad, however, generating some controversy. For example while China does issue a high number of green bonds, they issued a far higher value of social bonds in 2020. Much of this debt was labelled as for dealing with the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, which meant it could be classified as social bonds. This is controversial, as in many other countries debt raised for this purpose may not have been not categorized as sustainable. Some have also raised questions about whether such bonds can even be considered sustainable in the first place, given some certifications only required ** percent of the money raised to be used for causes directly related to the fight against COVID-19 (such as manufacturing medical devices, building hospitals, or scientific research).

In the context of the COVID-19’s outbreak and its implications for the financial sector, this study analyses the aspect of hedging and safe-haven under pandemic. Drawing on the daily data from 02 August 2019 to 17 April 2020, our key findings suggest that the contagious effects in financial assets’ returns significantly increased under COVID-19, indicating exacerbated market risk. The connectedness spiked in the middle of March, consistent with lockdown timings in major economies. The effect became severe with the WHO’s declaration of a pandemic, confirming negative news effects. The return connectedness suggests that COVID-19 has been a catalyst of contagious effects on the financial markets. The crude oil and the government bonds are however not as much affected by the spillovers as their endogenous innovation. In term of spillovers, we do find the safe-haven function of Gold and Bitcoin. Comparatively, the safe-haven effectiveness of Bitcoin is unstable over the pandemic. Whereas, GOLD is the most promising hedge and safe-haven asset, as it remains robust during the current crisis of COVID-19 and thus exhibits superiority over Bitcoin and Tether. Our findings are useful for investors, portfolio managers and policymakers interested in spillovers and safe havens during the current pandemic.

The Emerging Markets Bond Index (EMBI), commonly known as "riesgo país" in Spanish speaking countries, is a weighted financial benchmark that measures the interest rates paid each day by a selected portfolio of government bonds from emerging countries. It is measured in base points, which reflect the difference between the return rates paid by emerging countries' government bonds and those offered by U.S. Treasury bills. This difference is defined as "spread". Which Latin American country has the highest risk bonds? As of September 19, 2024, Venezuela was the Latin American country with the greatest financial risk and highest expected returns of government bonds, with an EMBI spread of around 254 percent. This means that the annual interest rates paid by Venezuela's sovereign debt titles were estimated to be exponentially higher than those offered by the U.S. Treasury. On the other hand, Brazil's EMBI reached 207 index points at the end of August 2023. In 2023, Venezuela also had the highest average EMBI in Latin America, exceeding 40,000 base points. The impact of COVID-19 on emerging market bonds The economic crisis spawned by the coronavirus pandemic heavily affected the financial market's estimated risks of emerging governmental bonds. For instance, as of June 30, 2020, Argentina's EMBI spread had increased more than four percentage points in comparison to January 30, 2020. All the Latin American economies measured saw a significant increase of the EMBI spread in the first half of the year.

As of July 22, 2025, the yield for a ten-year U.S. government bond was 4.38 percent, while the yield for a two-year bond was 3.88 percent. This represents an inverted yield curve, whereby bonds of longer maturities provide a lower yield, reflecting investors' expectations for a decline in long-term interest rates. Hence, making long-term debt holders open to more risk under the uncertainty around the condition of financial markets in the future. That markets are uncertain can be seen by considering both the short-term fluctuations, and the long-term downward trend, of the yields of U.S. government bonds from 2006 to 2021, before the treasury yield curve increased again significantly in the following years. What are government bonds? Government bonds, otherwise called ‘sovereign’ or ‘treasury’ bonds, are financial instruments used by governments to raise money for government spending. Investors give the government a certain amount of money (the ‘face value’), to be repaid at a specified time in the future (the ‘maturity date’). In addition, the government makes regular periodic interest payments (called ‘coupon payments’). Once initially issued, government bonds are tradable on financial markets, meaning their value can fluctuate over time (even though the underlying face value and coupon payments remain the same). Investors are attracted to government bonds as, provided the country in question has a stable economy and political system, they are a very safe investment. Accordingly, in periods of economic turmoil, investors may be willing to accept a negative overall return in order to have a safe haven for their money. For example, once the market value is compared to the total received from remaining interest payments and the face value, investors have been willing to accept a negative return on two-year German government bonds between 2014 and 2021. Conversely, if the underlying economy and political structures are weak, investors demand a higher return to compensate for the higher risk they take on. Consequently, the return on bonds in emerging markets like Brazil are consistently higher than that of the United States (and other developed economies). Inverted yield curves When investors are worried about the financial future, it can lead to what is called an ‘inverted yield curve’. An inverted yield curve is where investors pay more for short term bonds than long term, indicating they do not have confidence in long-term financial conditions. Historically, the yield curve has historically inverted before each of the last five U.S. recessions. The last U.S. yield curve inversion occurred at several brief points in 2019 – a trend which continued until the Federal Reserve cut interest rates several times over that year. However, the ultimate trigger for the next recession was the unpredicted, exogenous shock of the global coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, showing how such informal indicators may be grounded just as much in coincidence as causation.

In March, the coronavirus pandemic led to a sell-off in Treasury markets and a subsequent period of financial stress. I use one measure of Treasury market pressure, the G-spread, to gauge how liquidity in Treasury markets changed in response to the pandemic and the Federal Reserve’s interventions. I find that timely Federal Reserve interventions restored calm to the Treasury market, and that these interventions stand out in speed and scale compared with interventions in the early days of the 2007–08 financial crisis.

China Bond Yield: Treasury Bond: 3 Month data was reported at 1.450 % pa in 02 Dec 2025. This records a decrease from the previous number of 1.450 % pa for 01 Dec 2025. China Bond Yield: Treasury Bond: 3 Month data is updated daily, averaging 1.910 % pa from Mar 2006 (Median) to 02 Dec 2025, with 4943 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 5.113 % pa in 21 Jun 2013 and a record low of 0.782 % pa in 25 Dec 2024. China Bond Yield: Treasury Bond: 3 Month data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by China Central Depository & Clearing Co., Ltd. The data is categorized under China Premium Database’s Money Market, Interest Rate, Yield and Exchange Rate – Table CN.MF: PBC & CCDC: Treasury Bond and Other Bond Yield: Daily. [COVID-19-IMPACT]

A monetary policy reaction function typically describes how a central bank’s policy rate responds to changes in economic fundamentals, such as inflation and labor market conditions, and other factors. We use minute-by-minute data on two-year Treasury yields to study the market-expected monetary policy reaction function from 2004 to 2024. We find that financial markets expected monetary policy to react more aggressively to inflation news during 2022–2024 than in the pre-COVID-19-pandemic period. In addition, we find that the sensitivity of the two-year Treasury yield to economic news other than core inflation and labor market conditions has decreased over time. This time-varying sensitivity to changes in economic fundamentals may reflect an actual change in the FOMC’s reaction function, or it may be associated with the fact that market participants became more attentive to inflation news after the pandemic recession period.

The yield on ******** bonds issued by the French government stood at ***** percent as of ***********. this was an improvement on the lows of around ***** percent seen in ***********, and ***** percent seen in **********, at the beginning of the economic crisis caused by the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic. Negative bond yields signify that investors receive less money at the bond's maturity than the original purchase price of the bond, owing to high demand for the bond on money or capital markets. As of ****************, the ******** bond yield stood at **** percent.

As of December 30, 2024, ** economies reported a negative value for their ten year minus two year government bond yield spread: Ukraine with a negative spread of ***** percent; Turkey, with a negative spread of 1332 percent; Nigeria with **** percent; and Russia with **** percent. At this time, almost all long-term debt for major economies was generating positive yields, with only the most stable European countries seeing smaller values. Why is an inverted yield curve important? Often called an inverted yield curve or negative yield curve, a situation where short term debt has a higher yield than long term debt is considered a main indicator of an impending recession. Essentially, this situation reflects an underlying belief among a majority of investors that short term interest rates are about to fall, with the lowering of interest rates being the orthodox fiscal response to a recession. Therefore, investors purchase safe government debt at today's higher interest rate, driving down the yield on long term debt. In the United States, an inverted yield curve for an extended period preceded (almost) all recent recessions. The exception to this is the economic downturn caused by the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic – however, the U.S. ten minus two year spread still came very close to negative territory in mid-2019. Bond yields and the coronavirus pandemic The onset of the coronavirus saw stock markets around the world crash in March 2020. This had an effect on bond markets, with the yield of both long term government debt and short term government debt falling dramatically at this time – reaching negative territory in many countries. With stock values collapsing, many investors placed their money in government debt – which guarantees both a regular interest payment and stable underlying value - in contrast to falling share prices. This led to many investors paying an amount for bonds on the market that was higher than the overall return for the duration of the bond (which is what is signified by a negative yield). However, the calculus is that the small loss taken on stable bonds is less that the losses likely to occur on the market. Moreover, if conditions continue to deteriorate, the bonds may be sold on at an even higher price, partly offsetting the losses from the negative yield.

The Investment and Asset Management industry in China has increased at a CAGR of 1.8% over the five years through 2025. This growth includes an expected increase of 3.3% in the current year. Rising industry demand has resulted from the recovery of the domestic economy from the COVID-19 epidemic and the continuous development of innovative financing products and channels, with funds, private offerings, and trusts replacing traditional bank savings accounts.In 2020, affected by the COVID-19 epidemic, there is great pressure on asset management companies' liquidity management and asset quality management. Industry revenue was estimated to decrease by 4.6%. In 2021, with the recovery of China's economy, the Investment and Asset Management industry faced better market opportunities, and industry revenue is expected to have increased by 0.8%. In 2022, with the repeated COVID-19, the real estate sector in the main downstream markets was severely hit, so the Investment and Asset Management industry declined by 6.6%.ACMR-IBISWorld forecasts that industry revenue will grow 3.5% annually over the five years through 2030. Investment and asset management firms will continue investing in information management and resource allocation technology to upgrade their existing products and develop new product offerings. In addition, the Chinese Government is expected to launch more policies to encourage the healthy and stable development of the industry as investment and asset management become increasingly tied to stable economic growth and wealth accumulation within the country.

After to as low as low as **** percent in July 2020, in the wake of the coronavirus outbreak, the yield on 10-year U.S treasury bonds increased considerably. As of June 2025, it reached **** percent.

Over the past 15 years U.S. companies have tapped the bond market at a near‑record pace, issuing on average over *** trillion U.S. dollars worth of corporate bonds each year. The peak was reached in 2020 and 2021, when borrowing costs were at historic lows due to economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. Investment grade corporate bonds consistently represented the vast majority of corporate securities issuance. In 2024, for instance, investment grade corporate bonds accounted for more than ** percent of corporate securities issuance in the U.S.

In 2025, ** percent of adults in the United States invested in the stock market. This figure has remained steady over the last few years and is still below the levels before the Great Recession, when it peaked in 2007 at ** percent. What is the stock market? The stock market can be defined as a group of stock exchanges where investors can buy shares in a publicly traded company. In more recent years, it is estimated an increasing number of Americans are using neobrokers, making stock trading more accessible to investors. Other investments A significant number of people think stocks and bonds are the safest investments, while others point to real estate, gold, bonds, or a savings account. Since witnessing the significant one-day losses in the stock market during the financial crisis, many investors were turning towards these alternatives in hopes for more stability, particularly for investments with longer maturities. This could explain the decrease in this statistic since 2007. Nevertheless, some speculators enjoy chasing the short-run fluctuations, and others see value in choosing particular stocks.

Between ************ and *********, global recession fear went through periods of sharp increases three times. First, in the summer of 2019, due to an escalation in U.S.-China relations and a recession signal being flashed by the bond market. The second peak of worldwide recession fear took place in **********, as a result of the alarming jump in the rate of COVID-19 cases. The fear of recession started to increase sharply again in *************, as the conflict between Russia and Ukraine escalated.

Outstanding corporate debt securities in the United States have been trending upwards since the first quarter of 2018, with this growth accelerating with the onset of the global coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic. From a total of almost ** trillion U.S. dollars in the first quarter 2018, by the last quarter of 2024 this value had climbed to approximately **** trillion U.S. dollars.

In the fourth quarter of 2024, ***** billion U.S. dollars worth of student loans were in forbearance in the United States. This reflects the effects of the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, where the government temporarily paused student loan payments and froze the accumulation of interest. Federal student loan repayments resumed in October 2023, with *** billion U.S. dollars worth of student loans in repayment as of ** 2024. During this time period, outstanding student loan debt in the U.S. totaled over **** trillion U.S. dollars.

After declining in all but one quarters from the first quarter of 2018 to the first quarter of 2020, with the onset of the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic the value of outstanding Australian corporate securities notably increased. From a total of **** trillion U.S. dollars in Q1 2020, this value climbed to **** trillion U.S. dollars in Q1 2024. Of this total, the outstanding debt securities from Australian financial corporations was over five times greater than those from non-financial corporations.

The Federal Reserve's balance sheet has undergone significant changes since 2007, reflecting its response to major economic crises. From a modest *** trillion U.S. dollars at the end of 2007, it ballooned to approximately **** trillion U.S. dollars by October 29, 2025. This dramatic expansion, particularly during the 2008 financial crisis and the COVID-19 pandemic—both of which resulted in negative annual GDP growth in the U.S.—showcases the Fed's crucial role in stabilizing the economy through expansionary monetary policies. Impact on inflation and interest rates The Fed's expansionary measures, while aimed at stimulating economic growth, have had notable effects on inflation and interest rates. Following the quantitative easing in 2020, inflation in the United States reached ***** percent in 2022, the highest since 1991. However, by August 2025, inflation had declined to *** percent. Concurrently, the Federal Reserve implemented a series of interest rate hikes, with the rate peaking at **** percent in August 2023, before the first rate cut since September 2021 occurred in September 2024. Financial implications for the Federal Reserve The expansion of the Fed's balance sheet and subsequent interest rate hikes have had significant financial implications. In 2024, the Fed reported a negative net income of ***** billion U.S. dollars, a stark contrast to the ***** billion U.S. dollars profit in 2022. This unprecedented shift was primarily due to rapidly rising interest rates, which caused the Fed's interest expenses to soar to over *** billion U.S. dollars in 2023. Despite this, the Fed's net interest income on securities acquired through open market operations reached a record high of ****** billion U.S. dollars in the same year.