ABSTRACT Latin America has entered a new phase of abundance of capital inflows, bearing some resemblance to the episode of 70’s. In this paper a review is made of the origins of indebtment in the 70’s, of the emergence of the crisis in the early 80’s, and of the management by creditors and debtors during that decade. Some lessons are derived about the working of international financial markets and policy implications.

College Scorecard

The College Scorecard dataset is provided by the U.S. Department of Education and contains information on nearly every college and university in the United States. The dataset includes data on student loan repayment rates, graduation rates, affordability, earnings after graduation, and more. The goal of this dataset is to help students make informed decisions about their college choice by providing them with clear and concise information about each school's performance

How to use the dataset

This dataset can help understand the cost of attending college in the United States, as well as the average debt load for students. It can also be used to compare different schools in terms of their graduation rates and repayment rates

Columns

• UNITID: Unit ID for institution
• INSTNM: Institution name
• CITY: City
• STABBR: State
• ZIP: Zip code
• OPEID: OPE ID for institution
• OPEID6: OPE ID for institution (6-digit)
• ACCREDAGENCY: Accrediting Agency
• INSTURL: Institution URL
• NPCURL: Net Price Calculator URL
• SCH_DEG: Highest degree awarded
• HCM2: Carnegie Classification 2010:** Basic
• MAIN: Carnegie Classification 2010:** Main
• NUMBRANCH: Number of branch campuses
• PREDDEG: Predominant degree awarded
• HIGHDEG: Highest degree awarded
• CONTROL: Control of institution
• ST_FIPS: State FIPS code
• REGION: Region
• LOCALE: Locale code
• LOCALE2: Locale code (multiple categories per state)
• CCBASIC: Carnegie Classification 2010:** Basic
• CCMAIN: Carnegie Classification 2010:** Main
• CCUGPROF: Carnegie Classification 2010:** Undergraduate Profile
• CCSIZSET: Carnegie Classification 2010:** Size and Setting
• HBCU: Historically Black College or University
• PBI: Predominantly Black Institution
• ANNHI: Tribal College or University
• TRIBAL: Tribal College or University (Public)
• AANAPII: Asian American and Native American Pacific Islander-Serving Institution
• HSIP: Hispanic-Serving Institution (HSI)
• NANTI: Native American-Serving Nontribal Institution
• MENONLY: Men only
• WOMENONLY: Women only
• RELAFFIL: Religious affiliation
• DISTANCEONLY: Distance-only
• CURROPER: Currently operating
• VETERAN: Veteran-supportive
• LIMDEP: Limited-degree-granting
• HIGHDEG_GRANTED: Highest degree granted
• PS: Predominantly two-year public
• UGRD_ENRL_TOTAL: Undergraduate total enrollment
• GRAD_ENRL_TOTAL: Graduate total enrollment
• UGRD_ENRL_ORIG_YR2_RT: Undergraduate, first-time, first-year retention rate (%)

Acknowledgements

This data was originally collected by the US Department of Education and made available on their website. Thank you to the US Department of Education for making this data available!

In 2023, the gross federal debt in the United States amounted to around ****** U.S. dollars per capita. This is a moderate increase from the previous year, when the per capita national debt amounted to about ****** U.S. dollars. The total debt accrued by the U.S. annually can be accessed here. Federal debt of the United States The level of national debt held by the United States government has risen sharply in the years following the Great Recession. Federal debt is the amount of debt the federal government owes to creditors who hold assets in the form of debt securities. As with individuals and consumers, there is a common consensus among economists that holding debt is not necessarily problematic for government so long as the public debt is held at a sustainable level. Although there is no agreed upon ratio of debt to gross domestic product, the increasing debt held by the Federal Reserve has become a major part of the political discourse in the United States. Politics and the national debt In recent years, debate over the debt ceiling has been of concern to domestic politicians, the owners of federal debt, and global economy as a whole. The debt ceiling is a legislated maximum amount that national debt can reach intended to impose a degree of fiscal prudence on incumbent governments. However, as national debt has grown the debt ceiling has been reached, thus forcing legislative action by Congress. In both 2011 and 2013, new legislation was passed by Congress allowing the debt ceiling to be raised. The Budget Control Act of 2011 and the No Budget, No Pay Act of 2013 successively allowed the government to avoid defaulting on national debt and therefore avert a potential economic crisis.

In August 2025, the public debt of the United States was around 37.27 trillion U.S. dollars, a slight decrease from the previous month. The U.S. public debt ceiling has become one of the most prominent political issues in the States in recent years, with debate over how to handle it causing political turmoil between Democrats and Republicans. The public debt The public debt of the United States has risen quickly since 2000, and in 2022 was more than five times higher than in 2000. The public debt is the total outstanding debt that is owed by the federal government. This figure comprises debt owed to the public (for example, through bonds) and intergovernmental debt (debt owed to various governmental departments), such as Social Security. Debt in Politics The debt issue has become a highly contentious topic within the U.S. government. Measures such as stimulus packages, social programs and tax cuts add to the public debt. Additionally, spending tends to peak during large global events, such as the Great Depression, the 2008 financial crisis, or the COVID-19 pandemic - all of which had a detrimental impact on the U.S. economy. Although both major political parties in the U.S. tend to blame one another for increases in the country's debt, a recent analysis found that both parties have contributed almost equally to national expenditure. Debate on raising the debt ceiling, or the amount of debt the federal government is allowed to have at any one time, was a leading topic in the government shutdown in October 2013. Despite plans from both Democrats and Republicans on how to lower the national debt, it is only expected to increase over the next decade.

Government Debt in the United States increased to 38040094 USD Million in October from 37637553 USD Million in September of 2025. This dataset provides - United States Government Debt- actual values, historical data, forecast, chart, statistics, economic calendar and news.

ABSTRACT Latin America remained almost stagnant in per capita terms in the last twenty years. The original causes are well known: the interrelated debt crisis and the fiscal crisis of the state. But why Latin American countries took so long to recover macroeconomic stability? Not only because fiscal adjustment and market oriented reforms were checked by interest groups, but also because, even when policymakers were free from political constraints, they nevertheless often made serious policy mistakes: mistakes that derived from technical or emotional incompetence, and from a subordinate “confidence building” strategy, that implied doing everything they supposed international agencies and financial markets would expect in order to achieve credit and credibility, instead of using their own judgment to make decisions and design required reforms.

ABSTRACT The debt crisis that swapped Latin America received keen attention from economists of the most diverse schools. They are expected to reaffirm their differences but also show some points of convergence. This paper aims to delineates these points by giving an historical retrospect of both debt itself and the Latin American crisis.

The statisic shows the concern among Americans around the impact of the European financial crisis on the United States economy. According to the source, 15 percent of those polled stated that they were 'not too concerned' about the impact of the European financial crisis on the U.S. economy.

Graph and download economic data for Equity Market Volatility Tracker: Financial Crises (EMVFINCRISES) from Jan 1985 to Oct 2025 about volatility, uncertainty, equity, financial, and USA.

The statistic shows the national debt of the United States from 2020 to 2024, with projections up until 2030. The amount of the debt of the United States amounted to around 35.25 trillion U.S. dollars in 2024. National debt of the United States National debt in the United States is a topic of much debate and controversy, primarily due to large amounts of unnecessary spending. Despite the fact that the United States had the highest gross domestic product (GDP) in the world in 2016, along with being one of the most developed powerhouses in the world, the country suffers in many economical aspects. When analyzing the country’s imports and exports, the United States has recorded a trade deficit for more than a decade as of 2015, meaning that its imports exceeded its exports every year. However, despite being significantly affected by the world economic crisis in 2008, the country’s trade balance noticeably improved in 2009, almost halving the country’s total trade deficit. An economical aspect that did not improve during the world economic crisis was the country’s unemployment rate. The number of unemployed in the United States increased greatly in 2009 and continued to rise in 2010, however finally stabilized in the following years and has since declined yearly. When considering the total population of the United States, which amounted to roughly 322 million in 2015, a large percentage of citizens, who are capable of work, have been left without a job for roughly 7 years.

This article uses empirical evidence from Latin American and East European International Monetary Fund (IMF) programs from 1982 to 2001 to analyze the nature and the extent of preferential lending practices by the IMF. Unlike prior work, which focused on narrow political interference from large IMF member states, the present analysis differentiates between such narrow interests and the Fund's international systemic responsibilities, which may justify the preferential treatment of systemically important countries to prevent broader regional or global crises. The empirical results suggest that systemically based deviations from technocratic impartiality predominate in situations—such as the Latin American debt crisis—where international financial stability is under serious threat. Under such circumstances, economically important countries do receive preferential IMF treatment but only when experiencing severe crises, while narrow “private goods” considerations are largely sidelined. When systemic threats are less immediate—such as in Latin America and Eastern Europe in the 1990s—IMF favoritism reflects a more volatile and region-specific mix of private and public considerations in line with the changing interests of powerful Western nations in the developing world.

Adding to national debt is an inevitable fact of being President of the United States. The extent to which debt rises under any sitting president depends not only on the policy and spending choices they have made, but also the choices made by presidents and congresses that have come before them. Ronald Reagan and George W. Bush President Ronald Reagan increased the U.S. debt by around **** trillion U.S. dollars, or ****** percent. This is often attributed to "Reaganomics," in which Reagan implemented significant supply-side economic policies in which he reduced government regulation, cut taxes, and tightened the money supply. Spending increased under President George W. Bush in light of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. To finance the wars, President Bush chose to borrow the money, rather than use war bonds or increase taxes, unlike previous war-time presidents. Additionally, Bush introduced a number of tax cuts, and oversaw the beginning of the 2008 financial crisis. Barack Obama President Obama inherited both wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, and the financial crisis. The Obama administration also did not increase taxes to pay for the wars, and additionally passed expensive legislation to kickstart the economy following the economic crash, as well as the Affordable Care Act in 2010. The ACA expanded healthcare coverage to cover more than ** million more Americans through programs like Medicare and Medicaid. Though controversial at the time, more than half of Americans have a favorable view of the ACA in 2023. Additionally, he signed legislation making the W. Bush-era tax cuts permanent.

This file contains the data and code for the publication "The Federal Reserve's Response to the Global Financial Crisis and Its Long-Term Impact: An Interrupted Time-Series Natural Experimental Analysis" by A. C. Kamkoum, 2023.

Countries become more politically polarized and fractionalized following financial crises, reducing the likelihood of major financial reforms precisely when they might have especially large benefits. The evidence from a large sample of countries provides strong support for the hypotheses that following a financial crisis, voters become more ideologically extreme and ruling coalitions become weaker, independently of whether they were initially in power. The evidence that increased polarization and weaker governments reduce the chances of financial reform and that financial crises lead to legislative gridlock and anemic reform is less clear-cut. The US debt overhang resolution is discussed as an illustration.

Abstract The paper aims to analyze the wide range of unconventional monetary policies adopted in the U.S. since the 2007-2008 financial crises, focusing on conceptual aspects, the implementation of different programs and measures adopted by FED, and their effectiveness. It is argued that the use of credit and quasi-debt policies had significant effects on the financial conditions and on a set of macroeconomic variables in the US, such as output and employment. This result raises questions about the effectiveness of conventional monetary policy and the forward guidance, both of which were key elements in the New Macroeconomics Consensus view that preceded the 2007-2008 financial crisis.

Do international lenders of last resort create financial instability by generating moral hazard? The evidence is thin and plagued with measurement error. We use the number of American troops hosted by third countries to measure the strength of American commitment to ensuring the countries’ economic health. We test several hypotheses against a dataset covering about sixty-eight countries between 1960 and 2009. Using evidence from fixed-effects and instrumental-variable models, we find that increasing the number of US troops by one standard deviation above the mean raises the probability of a financial crisis in the host country by up to 13 percentage points. We also investigate the channels through which moral hazard materializes. Countries with more US troops conduct more expansionary fiscal and monetary policies, implement riskier financial regulations, and receive more capital, especially from US banks. While many scholars of international relations view the American overseas military presence as a source of stability, we identify an underexplored mechanism by which it generates instability.

The statistic shows the gross national debt of the United States from 2019 to 2024 in relation to the gross domestic product (GDP), with projections up until 2030. In 2024, the national debt of the United States was at around 120.79 percent of the gross domestic product. See the US GDP for further information. US finances There has been a dramatic increase in the public debt of the United States since 1990, although the month-to-month change has been quite stable over the last few months. Public debt is defined as the amount of money borrowed by a country to cover budget deficits. A ranking of individual state debt in the United States shows that California is leading by a clear margin, with more than double the amount of runner-up New York. Vermont, North Dakota and South Dakota are the states with the lowest amount of debt. Even before the recession of 2008, the national debt of the United States had been increasing steadily and excessively, and it is predicted to rise even further. Budget cuts and fewer job opportunities as a result of the crisis are taking their toll on the American economy, which is still recovering. Trade figures as well as unemployment are still below average. Subsequently, the national debt and the national debt of the United States per capita have more or less quadrupled since the 1990s. Interestingly, the United States is not even among the top ten of countries with the highest public debt in relation to gross domestic product in international comparison. Japan, Greece and Italy – among others – report far higher figures than the United States.

In this study, we present a novel approach to analyzing financial crises of the global stock market by leveraging a modified Autoencoder model based on Recurrent Neural Network (RNN-AE). We analyze time series data from 24 global stock markets between 2007 and 2024, covering multiple financial crises, including the Global Financial Crisis (GFC), the European Sovereign Debt Crisis (ESD), and the COVID-19 pandemic. By training the RNN-AE with normalized stock returns, we derive correlations embedded in the model’s weight matrices. To explore the network structure, we construct threshold networks based on the middle-layer weights for each year and examine key topological metrics, such as entropy, average clustering coefficient, and average shortest path length, providing new insights into the dynamic evolution of global stock market interconnections. Our method effectively captures the major financial crises. Our analysis indicates that interactions among American indices were significantly higher during the GFC in 2008 and the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. In contrast, interactions among European indices were more prominent during the 2022 Russia-Ukraine conflict. In examining net inter-continental interactions, the influence was stronger between Europe and America during the GFC and the ESD crisis while, the influence between America and Asia was more powerful during the COVID-19 pandemic. Finally, we determine the structural entropy of the constructed networks, which effectively monitors the states of the market. Overall, our RNN-AE based network construction method provides valuable insights into market dynamic and uncovering financial crises, offering a powerful tool for investors and policymakers.

ABSTRACT Financial institutions show a characteristic risk exposure and vulnerability, making them prone to instability. Financial systems in Latin America, however, were left largely unscathed by the global financial crisis starting in 2008. This state-of-the-art survey provides an in-depth analysis on the identification and regulation of systemically important financial institutions (SIFIs). While Latin America benefits from its rich historical experience in managing systemic risks, we find the problem of SIFIs to be still underestimated. However, there are first efforts to cope with SIFIs in science and particularly Latin American supervisors and regulators are starting to take the threat posed by SIFIs seriously.

Student Loan Refinancing Platform Market Outlook

According to our latest research, the global student loan refinancing platform market size reached USD 6.48 billion in 2024, reflecting a robust expansion driven by the increasing demand for flexible student debt solutions. The market is projected to grow at a CAGR of 10.2% from 2025 to 2033, resulting in a forecasted market size of USD 15.64 billion by 2033. This impressive growth is primarily fueled by the rising student debt burden, evolving digital lending technologies, and the growing awareness among borrowers about the benefits of refinancing. As per our latest research, the market continues to witness heightened innovation and partnerships, particularly across North America and Europe, as stakeholders strive to meet the evolving needs of students, parents, and educational institutions.

One of the primary growth drivers of the student loan refinancing platform market is the escalating global student debt crisis. With total student loan debt surpassing USD 1.8 trillion globally in 2024, borrowers are increasingly seeking alternatives to reduce their financial burden. Refinancing platforms offer competitive interest rates, flexible repayment terms, and better customer experiences compared to traditional lenders. This shift is particularly pronounced in developed economies, where the high cost of education and limited government support have made refinancing an attractive option. The proliferation of fintech companies and digital lending platforms has further accelerated market growth by streamlining the application process and enhancing transparency, thereby fostering borrower trust and engagement.

Another significant factor contributing to the market's expansion is the widespread adoption of advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence, machine learning, and big data analytics. These technologies enable platforms to offer personalized loan products, automate underwriting processes, and improve risk assessment, resulting in faster approvals and more favorable terms for borrowers. Cloud-based deployment has also become increasingly prevalent, allowing providers to scale their operations efficiently and deliver seamless digital experiences. Furthermore, regulatory support in certain regions, including revised credit assessment norms and borrower protection policies, has encouraged both traditional financial institutions and fintech disruptors to invest in student loan refinancing solutions, thereby intensifying competition and innovation.

The growing awareness among students, parents, and educational institutions regarding the long-term benefits of student loan refinancing is another key market catalyst. Educational institutions are increasingly partnering with refinancing platforms to offer tailored financial literacy programs and refinancing options to their alumni and current students. Parents, who often co-sign or take out loans for their childrenÂ’s education, are also leveraging these platforms to secure better rates and terms. The integration of refinancing services with broader financial wellness initiatives and employer benefit programs is further expanding the marketÂ’s reach. As more stakeholders recognize the potential for cost savings and improved financial outcomes, the adoption of student loan refinancing platforms is expected to accelerate in the coming years.

The concept of Student Loan ABS (Asset-Backed Securities) is gaining traction as a financial instrument that allows lenders to bundle student loans and sell them as securities to investors. This process not only provides liquidity to lenders but also distributes the risk associated with student loans among a broader base of investors. As the student loan refinancing market continues to expand, the role of Student Loan ABS in providing capital to refinance platforms is becoming increasingly significant. By securitizing these loans, lenders can free up capital to issue new loans, thereby supporting the growth of the student loan market. The development of a robust Student Loan ABS market could also lead to more competitive interest rates and better terms for borrowers, as lenders seek to attract investors with high-quality loan portfolios.

From a regional perspective, North America remains the largest and most mature market for student loan refinancing platforms, accou