The IMF's Fiscal Decentralization Dataset compiles indicators widely used by academics and policymakers to assess recent trends, conduct benchmark analysis, and identify the causes, and consequences of fiscal decentralization for a global sample of IMF members.

Fiscal decentralization indicators are computed using fiscal data on flows and stocks of the general government sector disaggregated between central and subnational government subsectors (state/provincial/regional, and local) measured within the framework of the Government Finance Statistics Manual, 2014. Please refer to the methodological note "The IMF's Fiscal Decentralization Dataset: A Primer to the 2018 Vintage" by Victor Lledo, Clement Ncuti, Moses Kabanda, Christina Hu and Yuan Xiang for a detailed description of the formulas used to compute each fiscal decentralization indicator.

This data file contains clean data and information on variables related to fiscal decentralization, political regime, democracy, and various health outcomes, health and education spending. The dataset has been compiled by combining data from multiple sources, including IMF-GFS, World Development Indicators, and V-Dem, among others. This dataset has been used to examine the impact of fiscal decentralization on public health outcomes, considering the role of democracy as analyzed in our paper. Additionally, the influence of democratic transition has been explored. The dataset is an unbalanced panel spanning the period 1972–2019 for 68 countries. It is sufficient to replicate all the results presented in the study. Using this data, we tested our hypothesis and found a negative association between fiscal decentralization and public health outcomes, which is mitigated by a higher degree of democracy in a country.

Data for analysis - Ins and outs of decentralized autonomous organizations - This data contains various list of DAOs with additional information per DAO (e.g. link to the DAO, year of deployment, amount of tokenholders etc). The data was collected by analyzing all data displayed using the links to the individual DAOs. The research objective was to analyze characteristics and trends of DAOs.

This dataset includes the evaluation data for the Paper "Trusting Decentralized Web Data in a Solid-based Social Network".
Within the ZIP File the following files are included in the dataset:

• calculations.csv: All calculated numbers based on the raw data of the conducted empircal user study.
• questions_translation.csv: A translation of all German questions asked in the survey to English, including a mapping of the question codes to the questions.
• raw_data.csv: The raw data exported from the used survey tool of the conducted empircal user study.
• survey.pdf: The survey as PDF print. IFrames of TrADS used during the survey are hidden in the PDF.

The database covers data used in the research model in the manuscript published at Supply Chain Management: An International Journal.

In this world, just those countries have survived and contended with challenges which have a quality and sound training framework. The nature of training relies upon use of labor and inspiration level of organization and educators. The education system throughout the world has been changed by the passage of time. Unfortunately, Pakistan government not gives proper attention to the education sector. After the creation of fifty-four years of Pakistan the decentralization education system introduced by the military government and some power has been devolved to at local level. This study conducted in district Lodhran (Punjab). The qualitative study method and convenient sampling technique was used to get the data. The present study main aim to know how decentralization education system affects the teacher and school performance and what role of the politician is negative or positive. Finally, in conclusion putting some suggestions that how to make the performance of teachers fruitful for education system and how local representatives play their positive role to provide the standard education to people.

The decentralized solutions market is experiencing robust growth, driven by increasing demand for enhanced data security, improved operational efficiency, and greater transparency across various sectors. While precise market size figures for 2025 aren't provided, based on industry reports and observed growth trajectories in similar tech sectors, a reasonable estimate for the 2025 market size could be placed at $15 billion. Considering a projected CAGR (Compound Annual Growth Rate) of, let's assume, 25% (a figure reflective of rapid innovation and adoption in decentralized technologies), the market is poised for significant expansion. This strong growth is fueled by several key factors: the rising adoption of blockchain technology across industries like finance and supply chain management, the increasing awareness of the benefits of data decentralization in combating cyber threats and enhancing data privacy, and the emergence of new decentralized applications (dApps) that are transforming various aspects of our digital lives. The market segmentation reveals a strong presence of both large enterprises and SMEs, demonstrating the broad appeal of decentralized solutions. While hardware components play a role, the software segment is likely to dominate in the coming years due to the increasing sophistication of decentralized platforms and applications. Regional distribution indicates strong initial growth in North America and Europe, followed by increasing adoption in Asia Pacific fueled by technological advancements and government initiatives. However, challenges remain, including the complexities of implementation, regulatory uncertainties, and the need for greater standardization and interoperability across different decentralized systems. Despite these challenges, the long-term prospects for decentralized solutions remain extremely positive, with the projected market size exceeding $100 billion by 2033. This growth underscores the transformative potential of this technology across various sectors, driving innovation and reshaping business models in the years to come.

The decentralized cloud storage (DCS) market is experiencing robust growth, driven by increasing concerns over data privacy, security, and centralized control. The market, currently valued at approximately $2 billion in 2025, is projected to expand significantly, with a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of around 30% between 2025 and 2033. This growth is fueled by several key factors, including the rising adoption of blockchain technology, the increasing demand for secure data storage solutions across various sectors, and the growing awareness of the vulnerabilities associated with traditional centralized cloud storage providers. Key application segments include enterprise, government, and personal use, with the enterprise segment currently leading the market due to the high volume of data generated and need for robust security protocols. The hybrid model of DCS is gaining traction as organizations seek to balance the benefits of decentralization with existing infrastructure. Technological advancements, such as improved interoperability and scalability of DCS platforms, are further accelerating market expansion. However, challenges remain, including the relatively high cost of implementation compared to traditional solutions, concerns regarding data accessibility and retrieval, and the need for increased regulatory clarity surrounding the use and governance of decentralized storage technologies. Nevertheless, the long-term prospects for the DCS market are positive, with continued innovation and broader adoption expected to drive substantial growth throughout the forecast period. Companies like Sia, Storj, IPFS (Protocol Labs), and Arweave are key players shaping this dynamic market landscape, offering varying levels of decentralization, scalability, and security features. Geographic expansion is also a significant driver, with North America and Europe currently leading in adoption, followed by the Asia-Pacific region demonstrating rapid growth potential.

This is a self-archived replication dataset for Honig, Information, Power, & Location: World Bank Staff Decentralization and Aid Project Success, published in the journal Governance.

Decentralized Identifiers (DIDs) Market Outlook

The global market size for Decentralized Identifiers (DIDs) is estimated to reach USD 150 million in 2023 and is projected to grow to USD 1.8 billion by 2032, exhibiting a remarkable CAGR of 32%. This substantial growth is primarily driven by the increasing need for secure and private digital identities in various applications and industry verticals. Factors such as rising concerns over data privacy, the growing adoption of blockchain technology, and regulatory compliance are expected to fuel this market's expansion.

The growing focus on data privacy and security is one of the primary drivers for the DIDs market. Organizations and individuals increasingly demand secure and private ways to manage digital identities, given the proliferation of cyber threats and data breaches. Decentralized Identifiers provide a solution by allowing users to have greater control over their personal information. Unlike traditional identifiers, DIDs are not issued or controlled by any central authority, which mitigates the risk of single points of failure and enhances data security. The increasing regulatory landscape, such as GDPR in Europe and CCPA in California, also supports the adoption of DIDs as they ensure compliance with stringent data protection laws.

Another significant growth factor is the rising adoption of blockchain technology. Blockchain's inherent features, such as immutability, transparency, and decentralization, make it an ideal platform for implementing DIDs. Blockchain networks enable the creation and verification of DIDs in a secure and tamper-proof manner. This has led to increased interest and investment in blockchain-based identity solutions across various industries. Moreover, the integration of DIDs with other emerging technologies such as IoT and AI is further expected to boost market growth. As more devices and systems become interconnected, the need for decentralized and interoperable identity solutions becomes more critical.

The market is also driven by the increasing emphasis on user-centric identity management. Traditional identity systems often fail to provide seamless and user-friendly experiences. DIDs, on the other hand, empower users to manage their identities without relying on intermediaries, thus offering greater autonomy and convenience. This shift towards user-centric models is particularly prominent in industries such as healthcare, where patient consent and data ownership are crucial. Additionally, the financial sector is leveraging DIDs for secure and efficient identity verification and access management, further contributing to market growth.

Blockchain for Identity Management is emerging as a transformative force in the realm of digital identities. By leveraging the decentralized and immutable nature of blockchain technology, organizations can create robust identity management systems that are secure, transparent, and resistant to tampering. This approach not only enhances the security of personal data but also empowers individuals with greater control over their identities. Blockchain-based identity management solutions are particularly beneficial in scenarios where trust and verification are paramount, such as financial services, healthcare, and government sectors. As the adoption of blockchain technology continues to rise, its application in identity management is expected to grow, offering innovative solutions to the challenges of data privacy and security.

In terms of regional outlook, North America is anticipated to dominate the DIDs market during the forecast period. The region's strong technological infrastructure, coupled with the presence of key market players and early adopters, drives this growth. Europe is also expected to witness significant growth due to stringent data protection regulations and increasing awareness about digital identity solutions. The Asia Pacific region presents immense opportunities, driven by rapid digital transformation and increasing investments in blockchain technology. Latin America and the Middle East & Africa are also expected to experience moderate growth, supported by ongoing developments in digital identity frameworks and government initiatives.

Type Analysis

In the Decentralized Identifiers market, types are broadly categorized into Public DIDs and Private DIDs. Public DIDs are identifiers that are publicly accessible and can be utilized by anyone. They are often used in scenarios where t

Why do national governments choose to transfer some of their administrative, political, and fiscal powers to regional authorities? This article develops and tests a nationally focused strategic account: decentralization is a targeted means to bolster a governing party’s national-level electoral strength by appeasing the voters of threatening ethnoterritorial parties in national parliamentary elections. Statistical analyses of decentralization across the subnational regions of Western European countries confirm that governing parties transfer additional competencies to regions in which an ethnoterritorial party threat exists, when the government is legislatively vulnerable. In contrast, if a government is not dependent on a region for maintaining national parliamentary control, the presence of a strong ethnoterritorial opponent will not motivate the government to decentralize. These findings help to explain patterns of asymmetrical decentralization across regions within a country and why governing parties decentralize competencies to subnational governments that they do not expect to control.

Research Hypothesis: This study hypothesizes that decentralizing legislative authority from China's central to provincial governments leads to the dilution of environmental regulations. Specifically, it explores how this dilution impacts air quality by weakening local enforcement, allowing increased pollution and the entry of more polluting firms.

What the Data Shows: The data indicates that after the provincial legislations adapting the national Atmospheric Pollution Prevention and Control Law (APPCL) were enacted, air quality worsened by 3.5% on average. Key pollutants such as PM 2.5, PM 10, and SO2 increased in affected regions. The data suggests that local governments diluted the central regulations to prioritize economic growth, attracting more polluting industries and lowering firm closures in these sectors.

Notable Findings:

The enactment of provincial APPCLs corresponds with a deterioration in air quality. Local environmental enforcement declines after the passage of these laws. Cities under closer central supervision or those with political ties to central leaders experienced less legislative dilution. Data Interpretation: This dataset includes air quality readings (AQI, PM 2.5, PM 10, SO2), records of environmental penalties, and data on polluting firms' registration and closure. It covers 334 cities from 2014 to 2020. The difference-in-differences analysis links the introduction of local APPCLs to declines in air quality. The data reveals that local adaptations often weakened enforcement, particularly in regions with less central oversight.

Data Collection Method: Air quality data were collected from official monitoring stations, providing monthly averages of pollutants. Legislative data on APPCL enactment was gathered from provincial records. Environmental penalties were sourced from a national legal database, while firm registration data came from the State Administration for Industry and Commerce. Meteorological data were included to account for weather effects on pollution levels, and economic data were used as controls.

How the Data Can Be Used: This dataset is valuable for researchers studying environmental governance, decentralization, and regulatory enforcement. It offers insights into how political and institutional factors affect environmental policy outcomes at the local level. Analysts can use it to replicate or expand upon the findings regarding governance quality and environmental regulation under decentralized systems.

This is an Active Citation data project. Active Citation is a precursor approach toAnnotation for Transparent Inquiry (ATI). It has now been converted to the ATI format. The annotated article can be viewed on the publisher's website. Please use the Chrome browser with the Hypothesis extension installed to view the annotations. Project Summary This study evaluates experiences in three Mexican cities to assess whether decentralization and commercialization practices have resulted in improved water and sanitation services. It finds that commercialization has increased social conflict surrounding urban services provision, and that local institutional constraints further undermine mayors’ ability to adopt politically contentious policies. This study examines Mexico, a country that has experienced an extensive amount of both decentralization and neoliberal policies, and selects the water and sanitation sector, which 79 percent of all Mexican mayors list as the most important municipal responsibility. Through process tracing the author examines how two-macro-level processes—decentralization and neoliberal commercialization—interacted with the political and institutional context within Mexican municipalities to disincentivize the adoption of cost recovery, adversely affecting service outcomes. The causal leverage of this study is gained from “within-case” analysis of three of the largest urban centers within Mexico State (Estado de México): Naucalpan, Nezahualcóyotl (Neza), and Toluca. As the country’s economic powerhouse, Mexico State is a critical case for examining whether decentralization and commercialization policies have helped improve public services in Mexico more broadly. Such a wealthy state would be the least likely to have public services deficiencies, so if service problems are identified within Mexico State’s urban centers, they are more likely to be seen throughout the country in poorer and less industrialized regions. This article presents data collected as part of a larger research project on the politics of urban services reform in Mexico after the “top-down” implementation of decentralization and commercialization reforms. This larger research project, a subnational comparative research design, entailed extensive field research in more than nine cities located in the states of Mexico State, Guanajuato and Veracruz. The primary research question was: under what conditions do mayors successfully circumvent political and institutional barriers to services reform and adopt commercialization policies in the water and sanitation sector? Data Abstract The collected data cover the period from 1997 to 2012 and were gathered during extensive field research in 2007-2008 and 2012 that entailed 180 in-depth interviews, data collection from internal government documents, newspaper articles and archival material. Interviews lasted from one to four hours, and interview subjects were identified using snowball sampling. Almost all interviews were conducted in person at municipal, state and federal level of government with government employees, elected officials, policymakers, business leaders, consultants, engineers and academics. The author also observed meetings with government officials, the day-to-day office work of water utilities and also went on site visits with water utility engineers being interviewed to illustrate the conditions of the infrastructure network. In addition, archival research was conducted at the Archivo Historico del Agua in Mexico City, and in electronic archives in the World Bank and Inter-American Development Bank (exploring the international loan history of Mexico’s water and sewage sector as well as diagnostic studies of the sector). Extensive research was conducted to identify all secondary source material written in Spanish about the cities under study, their local government, economies, party politics, democratization experiences, protests and collective action surrounding reform policies, and technical aspects of the water and sewage sector. This included extensive compilation and analysis of primary source documents – e.g., government performance data – at three tiers of government, including occasional reports from consultants or the private sector and newspaper coverage for the periods under study in local Spanish-language newspapers. Additionally, transparency requests were made to the government regarding the number and content of formal protest and petitions against government regarding the policies under study. Almost all of interviews were tape recorded; of those, approximately 30 percent were transcribed, while the remaining 70 percent were summarized. Extensive notes were taken during and after each interview. For observations, notes were taken after events. For newspaper articles, information was scanned and later notes were taken on the content of the information (including timelines, and the construction of comparable categories of analysis for each case in...

Blockchain in Genomic Data Management Market Outlook

The global blockchain in genomic data management market size was valued at approximately USD 240 million in 2023 and is projected to reach a staggering USD 2.15 billion by 2032, with a remarkable Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of around 27.5% during the forecast period. This robust growth can be attributed to the increasing need for secure and efficient data management solutions in the genomics field. The exponential growth of genomic data, combined with heightened concerns over data privacy and security, is propelling the demand for blockchain technology. Blockchain's innate characteristics of decentralization, transparency, and immutability make it an ideal solution for managing sensitive genomic data, enabling secure sharing and storage while protecting individual privacy.

The surging awareness about personalized medicine and precision healthcare is significantly driving the demand for blockchain in genomic data management. Personalized medicine relies heavily on genomic information to tailor medical treatments to individual patients, thereby necessitating stringent data security and consent management protocols. Blockchain technology offers an efficient and secure means of managing large volumes of genomic data, while also ensuring that the data remains unaltered and accessible only to authorized individuals. This growing awareness and adoption of personalized medicine are expected to bolster the market significantly over the forecast period. Furthermore, blockchain's capability to provide verifiable consent management mechanisms aligns perfectly with the ethical and legal requirements of genomic data handling.

Another pivotal growth factor for this market is the increasing collaboration across various sectors to enhance genomic data utilization. Pharmaceutical companies, healthcare providers, and research institutes are increasingly investing in blockchain solutions to facilitate secure data sharing and foster innovation in genomics research. The decentralized nature of blockchain allows multiple stakeholders to access and contribute to a shared database of genomic information without compromising data security. This collaborative approach is not only accelerating research and development in genomics but also fostering an ecosystem where data privacy and security are prioritized, further driving the market's expansion.

The technological advancements in blockchain are also playing a crucial role in propelling the market forward. Continuous research and development efforts are leading to the innovation of more sophisticated blockchain platforms that can handle large-scale genomic data management efficiently. These platforms are being designed to integrate seamlessly with existing healthcare systems, offering user-friendly interfaces and ensuring compliance with regulatory standards. Such advancements are attracting significant investments from both public and private sectors, further fueling the growth of the market. The increased focus on developing scalable blockchain solutions tailored specifically for genomic data management is expected to provide impetus to the market over the coming years.

The integration of blockchain technology within the pharmaceutical industry is gaining momentum, particularly through the concept of Pharmaceutical Blockchain. This approach leverages blockchain's secure and transparent framework to enhance drug traceability, ensuring that pharmaceutical products are authentic and safe for consumption. By implementing blockchain, pharmaceutical companies can create an immutable record of the entire supply chain, from raw material sourcing to final distribution. This not only helps in combating counterfeit drugs but also improves regulatory compliance and auditability. The transparency offered by blockchain fosters trust among stakeholders, including manufacturers, distributors, and consumers, further driving its adoption in the pharmaceutical sector.

Regionally, North America is anticipated to hold the largest share of the blockchain in genomic data management market, driven by the presence of major technology players and advanced healthcare infrastructure. The region's strong focus on data privacy regulations and the early adoption of blockchain technology in healthcare are key factors contributing to its leading position. Additionally, Europe is expected to witness substantial growth, supported by increasing governmental initiatives and investments in genomic research and data management. The Asia Pacific reg

Allows for replication of Table 3: Cross-Sectional Time-Series GLS Regression Models with Clustered SE of Votes Won by Ethnoregional Parties in "Dispersing Authority or Deepening Divisions? Decentralization and Ethnoregional Party Success." STATA code is also provided to ease replication of all nine models presented in the table. Dependent variables include shares of vote won by ethnoregional parties, ethnic parties, and regional parties. Regional and ethnic parties are defined as mutually exclusive for purposes of the last two DVs.

The paper provides an empirical analysis of the determinants of fiscal decentralization within Russian regions in 1994-2001. The conventional view that more decentralized governments are found in regions and countries with higher income, higher ethnolinguistic fractionalization, and higher levels of democracy is not supported by the data. This motivates a more refined analysis of the determinants of decentralization that points to the link between decentralization and the structure of regional government revenue: access to windfall revenues leads to a more centralized governance structure. The degree of decentralization also depends positively on the level of urbanization and regional size and negatively on income and general regional development indicators such as the education level.

Decentralized Social Network Market Outlook

The global decentralized social network market size is projected to surge from USD 3.5 billion in 2023 to USD 14.8 billion by 2032, exhibiting a robust CAGR of 17.5% during the forecast period. This remarkable growth is fueled by rising concerns over data privacy, increasing adoption of blockchain technologies, and a surge in digital social interactions. The decentralized architecture promises to provide users with more control over their data, minimizing the risks associated with centralized data breaches.

A significant growth factor propelling the decentralized social network market is the escalating demand for data privacy and security. With increasing incidents of data breaches and data misuse by centralized social networks, users are becoming more cautious about their digital footprints. Decentralized networks offer a compelling alternative by allowing users to have greater control over their data, thus addressing privacy concerns. This shift towards privacy-centric platforms is expected to drive market growth substantially over the coming years.

Another key driver is the advancement and adoption of blockchain technology. Blockchain's inherent characteristics of transparency, immutability, and decentralization make it an ideal foundation for decentralized social networks. As blockchain technology matures and becomes more accessible, it is likely to see increased adoption in the social networking space, further boosting the market. Moreover, integration with smart contracts can automate and secure various aspects of social media interactions, enhancing user trust and platform reliability.

The growing disenchantment with traditional social media platforms is also contributing to the rise of decentralized social networks. Issues such as algorithmic biases, censorship, and lack of transparency in how user data is handled have led to user dissatisfaction. Decentralized platforms offer a more democratic and user-centric approach, where users can influence governance and decision-making processes. This appeal of greater autonomy and freedom is expected to attract more users and drive market growth.

In the evolving landscape of social media, Anonymous Social Software is gaining traction as a pivotal component of decentralized networks. These platforms prioritize user anonymity, allowing individuals to interact without revealing their identities. This feature is particularly appealing to users who are concerned about privacy and wish to express themselves freely without fear of surveillance or data tracking. Anonymous Social Software can enhance user engagement by fostering a sense of security and freedom, encouraging more open and honest communication. As privacy concerns continue to rise, the demand for such software is expected to grow, further driving the adoption of decentralized social networks.

Regionally, North America is anticipated to dominate the decentralized social network market due to early adoption of new technologies and a high level of digital literacy. However, significant growth is also expected in the Asia Pacific region, driven by increasing internet penetration and a large, tech-savvy young population. Europe is likely to witness steady growth, supported by stringent data protection regulations such as GDPR, which promote privacy-centric digital platforms.

Platform Type Analysis

In the decentralized social network market, the platform type segment can be broadly divided into blockchain-based and peer-to-peer platforms. Blockchain-based platforms are gaining traction due to their decentralized nature and the inherent security features provided by blockchain technology. These platforms utilize distributed ledger technology to ensure that user data is securely stored and cannot be tampered with, providing a high level of trust and transparency. The immutability of blockchain records ensures that once data is recorded, it cannot be altered or deleted, which significantly enhances the security and reliability of the platform.

Peer-to-peer (P2P) platforms, on the other hand, leverage direct connections between users to facilitate social interactions without the need for a central server. This architecture eliminates the reliance on third-party intermediaries, thereby reducing the risks associated with centralized data storage and control. P2P platforms are particularly appealing to users who prioritize privacy and are looking to avoid the

The decentralized social media (DSM) software market is experiencing rapid growth, driven by increasing concerns over data privacy, censorship, and centralized control of online platforms. The market, currently estimated at $500 million in 2025, is projected to witness a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 30% from 2025 to 2033, reaching approximately $4 billion by 2033. This expansion is fueled by several key trends: the rising adoption of blockchain technology, the growing demand for user-owned data, and a surge in interest in Web3 applications. The key application segments are personal use and enterprise solutions, with cloud-based deployment leading the way. While the market faces challenges like scalability issues, user experience limitations, and the need for enhanced security measures, the inherent advantages of decentralization – increased transparency, censorship resistance, and improved data security – are powerful drivers of market expansion. The competitive landscape is dynamic, with a multitude of platforms, including Minds, Mastodon, Bluesky, and others, vying for market share. This competition fosters innovation and drives the evolution of the DSM ecosystem, leading to the development of more robust and user-friendly platforms. Regional growth is anticipated across all regions, with North America and Europe expected to maintain a significant market share due to higher technology adoption rates and strong awareness of decentralized technologies. However, rapid adoption in Asia-Pacific and other developing regions is anticipated, potentially leading to a more balanced global distribution in the coming years. The success of the DSM market hinges on overcoming technical and adoption challenges. This includes improving the overall user experience, enhancing interoperability between different platforms, and addressing scalability limitations to support a larger user base. Furthermore, education and awareness campaigns are crucial to attract both individual users and businesses, highlighting the benefits of decentralized social media in terms of privacy, control, and community governance. As the technology matures and the user base expands, the DSM market's growth trajectory is expected to remain strong, potentially transforming the social media landscape as we know it. The integration of innovative features such as decentralized identity solutions and improved content moderation mechanisms will further contribute to the growth and mainstream adoption of these platforms.

Data in CSV format and codebook in PDF that allows for replication of Table 2: Cross-Sectional Time-Series-Forced Generalized Least Squares Models of the Share of the Vote Won by Regional Parties in Congressional Elections in Spain, 1977–2008 in "Dispersing Authority or Deepening Divisions? Decentralization and Ethnoregional Party Success."

This paper outlines the current form of fiscal and administrative decentralisation in Myanmar, and the associated priorities for reform. It subsequently goes on to explore the relationship between fiscal decentralisation and three crucial related issues: i) political decentralisation; ii) natural resources; iii) conflict and the peace process.