This dataset contains quantitative data describing the numbers, densities, and sizes of D1- and D2-receptor positive neurons across the mouse forebrain, acquired by analysing section images from the DOPAMAP collection. Image series from a total of 111 subjects across the five age groups (P17, P25, P35, P49, and P70) were analyzed. We used ilastik to segment cells in the images and combined the resulting segmentation images with reference atlas maps generated using QuickNII and VisuAlign. In this dataset, we provide the segmentation images and reference atlas maps used, as well as the raw output from the analysis and estimates of densities, numbers, and sizes derived from the analysis. We also provide the ilastik classifier used, which may be useful for analysing similar (DAB-stained) data. Together, this dataset provides all the data needed to inspect and explore our data, reproduce our analysis, or re-use the segmentation images with new atlas maps (e.g. with future versions of the Allen mouse brain CCF).

A collection of 1 brain maps. Each brain map is a 3D array of values representing properties of the brain at different locations.

Collection description

Detailed information about the structural subdivision can be found in:
Tziortzi et al. Imaging dopamine receptors in humans with [11C]-(+)-PHNO: dissection of D3 signal and anatomy. NeuroImage 54: 264-77 (2011)

https://fsl.fmrib.ox.ac.uk/fsl/fslwiki/Atlases/striatumstruc

Dopamine neurotransmitter cycle occurs in dopaminergic neurons. Dopamine is synthesized and loaded into the clathrin sculpted monoamine transport vesicles. The vesicles are docked, primed and fused with the plasmamembrane in the synapse to release dopamine into the synaptic cleft.

Goal-directed navigation requires animals to continuously evaluate their current direction and speed of travel relative to landmarks to discern whether they are approaching or deviating from their goal. Striatal dopamine release signals the reward-predictive value of cues1,2, likely contributing to motivation3,4, but it is unclear how dopamine incorporates an animal’s ongoing trajectory for effective behavioral guidance. We demonstrate that cue-evoked striatal dopamine release in mice encodes bi-directional 'trajectory errors' reflecting the relationship between the speed and direction of ongoing movement relative to optimal goal trajectories. Trajectory error signals could be computed from locomotion or visual flow, and were independent from simultaneous dopamine increases reflecting learned cue value. Joint trajectory error and cue value encoding were reproduced by the RPE term in a standard reinforcement learning algorithm with mixed sensorimotor inputs. However, these two signals had distinct state space requirements, suggesting that they could arise from a common reinforcement learning algorithm with distinct neural inputs. Striatum-wide multi-fiber array measurements resolved overlapping, yet temporally and anatomically separable representations of trajectory error and cue-value, indicating how functionally distinct dopamine signals for motivation and guidance are multiplexed across striatal regions to facilitate goal-directed behavior.

Dopamine receptors play vital roles in processes such as the control of learning, motivation, fine motor control and modulation of neuroendocrine signaling (Giralt JA and Greengard P, 2004). Abnormalities in dopamine receptor signaling may lead to neuropsychiatric disorders such as Parkinson's disease and schizophrenia. Dopamine receptors are prominent in the CNS and the neurotransmitter dopamine is the primary endogenous ligand for these receptors. In humans, there are five distinct types of dopamine receptor, D1-D5. They are subdivided into two families; D1-like family (D1 and D5) which couple with the G protein alpha-s and are excitatory and D2-like family (D2,D3 and D4) which couple with the G protein alpha-i and are inhibitory (Kebabian JW and Calne DB, 1979).

README:There is an svMice_ structure for each experimental group, with group identification in the name of the structure (“svMice5” contains all animals trained with 5 uL rewards, “svMiceStim” contains mice that received VTA-DA optostim at time of reward collection, etc). Each svMice_ structure has 3 fields for each mouse in the group:sv: the main datasetname: for internal record-keepingrewSize: the size of reward, in microliters, that the mice received during trainingWithin the .sv field, data are further broken up according to whether they are continuous (the ‘signal’ field) or discrete timestamps (the ‘events’ field)*signal*X: x location within the arenaY: y location within the arenanac: nucleus accumbent core DA activity, measured with fiber photometry of dLight 1.3 activity*events*Each field is a list of timestamps within the continuous data at which specific events occurredrewTrigger: animal entered reward trigger area, immediately triggering reward delivery back at the reward portrewCollect: animal re-entered the “reward collection area” defined as a small semi-circle surrounding the reward port locationlick: individual lick detected at the reward portfirstLick: the first lick after a reward was delivered, thus marking the beginning of reward consumption (thus each ‘firstLick’ event will be duplicated in the more general ‘lick’ event list)*Example*For mouse#10 within the standard (5 uL) reward size group, the X position of the mouse at the delivery of the 9th reward on session 5 would be given by:svMice5(10).sv(5).signal.X( svMice5(10).sv(5).events.rewTrigger(9) )

Social behaviors are among the most notable motivated behaviors that are driven by rewarding goals. However, how dopamine (DA), a reward signal, releases during social behaviors has been unclear. This study used a genetically encoded DA sensor, GRAB_DA2m, to record DA activity in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) core during various social behaviors in male and female mice. They performed optical recording of DA signal by virally expressing Cre-dependent GRAB_DA2m bilaterally in the NAc core of Drd1-Cre mice. This dataset includes fiber photometry, behavioral, and immunohistochemistry data. These results provide complex information encoded by NAc DA activity during social behaviors and their multistage functional roles.

Dopamine in the striatum strongly regulates behavioral output in a heterogenous across the various striatal subregions. Moreover, dopamine dynamics not only displays heterogeneity across brain structures but also within males and females. The purpose of this dataset was to evaluate the dopamine dynamics in male and female mice and rats across five subregions: the dorsolateral caudate, ventromedial caudate, nucleus accumbens core, nucleus accumbens lateral shell, and the nucleus accumbens medial shell. Fast scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV) was employed to measure dopamine release and uptake following a single pulse electrical stimulation in each of these subregions within a single brain slice. The dopamine dynamics were also observed across a variety of stimulation amplitudes. The goal of this dataset was to produce systematic FSCV measurements of dopamine across the rodent striatum using FSCV which would be available as a resource for further investigation of DA terminal function.

Methods Detailed methods can be found in the manuscript.

Four groups of this dataset were used as negative samples for testing subtype selectivity of our developed multi-label machine learning models.

See the file README.docx for description of data files.

Datafile for: "Dopamine and the creative mind: Individual differences in creativity are predicted by interactions between dopamine genes DAT and COMT."

A collection of 7 brain maps. Each brain map is a 3D array of values representing properties of the brain at different locations.

Collection description

This repository includes dataset and python scripts for figure and data analysis of the study "Sequence termination cues drive habit-like strategy via dopamine-mediated processes". This repository is composed of 3 folders; datasets, python scripts and python functions.

Background Dopamine was shown to stimulate the perivitelline fluid secretion by the albumen gland. Even though the albumen gland has been shown to contain catecholaminergic fibers and its innervation has been studied, the type of catecholamines, distribution of fibers and the precise source of this neural innervation has not yet been deduced. This study was designed to address these issues and examine the correlation between dopamine concentration and the sexual status of snails.

   Results
   Dopaminergic neurons were found in all ganglia except the pleural and right parietal, and their axons in all ganglia and major nerves of the brain. In the albumen gland dopaminergic axons formed a nerve tract in the central region, and a uniform net in other areas. Neuronal cell bodies were present in the vicinity of the axons. Dopamine was a major catecholamine in the brain and the albumen gland. No significant difference in dopamine quantity was found when the brain and the albumen gland of randomly mating, virgin and first time mated snails were compared.


   Conclusions
   Our results represent the first detailed studies regarding the catecholamine innervation and quantitation of neurotransmitters in the albumen gland. In this study we localized catecholaminergic neurons and axons in the albumen gland and the brain, identified these neurons and axons as dopaminergic, reported monoamines present in the albumen gland and the brain, and compared the dopamine content in the brain and the albumen gland of randomly mating, virgin and first time mated snails.

Dopamine receptor D1, D2, D3 and D4 ligands (Ki <1 μM) and non-ligands (ki >10 μM) were collected as described in method section, and putative non-ligands were generated from representative compounds of compound families with no known ligand. These datasets were used for training and testing the multi-label machine learning models.

These data are used and described in the following paper: Jang H.J., Ward R.M., Golden C.E.M., Constantinople C.M. (2025). Acetylcholine demixes heterogeneous dopamine signals for learning and moving. Nature Neuroscience.

The data set comprises:

1) Behavioral data for the temporal wagering decision-making task in rats (A_structs, S_structs)

2) Electrophysiology recordings from the dorsomedial striatum in rats (NpxData)

3) Movement data tracked with DeepLabCut (DLCdata/*DLC.mat) and associated photometry recordings (DLCdata/*tmac.mat) and behavioral data (DLCdata/*bData.mat)

Files are Matlab data (.mat) files. The code to analyze this data and generate figures in Jang et al., 2025 is available at {https://github.com/constantinoplelab/published/tree/main/DMS_AChDA}. Data was analyzed using Matlab 2021b.

Executive Summary of Dopamine Market The global Dopamine market is poised for significant growth, projected to expand from $2,572.02 million in 2021 to $5,161.95 million by 2033, registering a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 5.977%. This expansion is primarily driven by the increasing prevalence of neurological and cardiovascular conditions such as Parkinson's disease, shock, and hypotension, particularly among the growing geriatric population worldwide. North America currently holds the largest market share, attributed to its advanced healthcare infrastructure and high healthcare expenditure. However, the Asia-Pacific region is emerging as the fastest-growing market, fueled by improving healthcare access, rising disposable incomes, and increasing awareness of dopamine-related therapies. The market is characterized by ongoing research and development into novel drug delivery systems and therapeutic applications, though it faces restraints from the side effects of dopamine treatments and stringent regulatory frameworks.

Key strategic insights from our comprehensive analysis reveal:

The global Dopamine market demonstrates consistent growth, with a projected value of $3,244.3 million in 2025, indicating sustained demand for treatments related to neurological and critical care conditions.
North America, particularly the United States, dominates the market landscape due to its robust healthcare system and high prevalence of target diseases. However, its growth rate is moderate compared to emerging economies.
The Asia-Pacific region is set to be the key growth engine, exhibiting the highest CAGR of 6.821%. Countries like China and India are at the forefront, driven by expanding healthcare infrastructure and a large patient base.

Global Market Overview & Dynamics of Dopamine Market Analysis The global Dopamine market is on a steady upward trajectory, reflecting its critical role in modern medicine. Primarily used to treat symptoms of shock, low blood pressure, and conditions like Parkinson's disease, the demand for dopamine and its agonists is closely tied to global demographic shifts, particularly the aging population. The market, valued at over $2.5 billion in 2021, is driven by an increase in chronic and lifestyle-related diseases, alongside advancements in pharmaceutical research. While mature markets like North America and Europe provide a stable revenue base, emerging economies offer new avenues for expansion, creating a dynamic and competitive global landscape.

Global Dopamine Market Drivers

  Increasing Prevalence of Parkinson's Disease and Other Neurological Disorders: As the global population ages, the incidence of age-related neurological conditions like Parkinson's disease is rising, directly fueling the demand for dopamine-based therapies to manage symptoms.


  Rising Incidence of Cardiovascular Conditions: The growing prevalence of conditions like heart failure, septic shock, and hypotension, which often require dopamine for blood pressure support and cardiac stimulation, acts as a major market driver.


  Growing Healthcare Expenditure and Awareness: Increased government and private spending on healthcare, coupled with greater patient and physician awareness about advanced treatment options in emerging economies, is expanding the accessibility and adoption of dopamine drugs.

Global Dopamine Market Trends

  Focus on Development of Novel Drug Delivery Systems: Pharmaceutical companies are increasingly investing in R&D to create new delivery mechanisms, such as transdermal patches and long-acting injectables, to improve patient compliance and reduce side effects.


  Expansion in Emerging Markets: Manufacturers are strategically expanding their operations and distribution networks in high-growth regions like Asia-Pacific and South America to capitalize on the untapped potential and rising healthcare needs.


  Shift Towards Combination Therapies: There is a growing trend of using dopamine agonists in combination with other drugs to enhance therapeutic efficacy and manage the complex symptoms of diseases like Parkinson's, creating new research and market opportunities.

Global Dopamine Market Restraints

  Significant Side Effects of Dopamine Therapy: Dopamine and its agonists are associated with a range of side effects, including nausea, hallucinations, and impulse control disorders, wh...

Reward motivation is known to enhance cognitive control. However, detrimental effects have also been observed, which have been attributed to overdosing of already high baseline dopamine levels by further dopamine increases elicited by reward cues. Aarts et al. (2014) indeed demonstrated, in 14 individuals, that reward effects depended on striatal dopamine synthesis capacity, measured with [18F]FMT-PET: promised reward improved Stroop control in low-dopamine individuals, while impairing it in high-dopamine individuals. Here, we aimed to assess this same effect in 44 new participants, who had previously undergone an [18F]DOPA-PET scan to quantify dopamine synthesis capacity. This sample performed the exact same rewarded Stroop paradigm as in the prior study. However, we did not find any correlation between reward effects on cognitive control and striatal dopamine synthesis capacity. Critical differences between the radiotracers [18F]DOPA and [18F]FMT are discussed, as the discrepancy between the current and our previous findings might reflect the use of the potentially less sensitive [18F]DOPA radiotracer in the current study.

Biological Magnetic Resonance Bank Entry bmse000933: Dopamine

Protein-Protein, Genetic, and Chemical Interactions for Seeman P (1993):Dopamine receptor pharmacology. curated by BioGRID (https://thebiogrid.org); ABSTRACT: Although antipsychotic drugs originally helped to discover dopamine receptors, the five dopamine receptors presently identified and cloned are facilitating the search for and discovery of more selective antipsychotic and antiparkinson drugs. The D1-like dopamine receptors, D1 and D5, are sensitive to the same drugs as the D1 receptor in native tissues, but D5 is about 10 times more sensitive to dopamine than D1. The D2-like receptors, D2, D3, and D4, have approximately similar sensitivities to dopamine, but bromocriptine and raclopride are both about two orders of magnitude weaker at D4, whereas clozapine is one order more potent at D4, as compared with D2 and D3. The human dopamine D4 receptor has many variants. The sensitivities to clozapine of human variants D4.2, D4.4, and D4.7 are approximately similar, with dissociation constants between 5 and 24 nM, matching the spinal fluid concentration of clozapine under therapeutic conditions. Thus antipsychotic action may be effected through blockade of either dopamine D2 or D4 receptors.