Adults with 100 thousand to *********** U.S. dollars in wealth made up around ** percent of the Japanese population in 2020, while the second largest share of people were worth between 10,000 and 100,000 dollars. Together, these groups accounted for approximately ** percent of the population.

Wealth versus income

Wealth, as opposed to income, measures the ownership of assets in a society. Together with GDP, GDP per capita, and household disposable income, it helps to understand the economic well-being of households. Furthermore, the distribution of wealth gives an indication about the degree of equality in a society. Illustrated by its wealth distribution, Japan can be considered relatively equal compared to other countries.

Egalitarian corporate culture

In recent years, wealth inequality has become the subject of increasing focus among policymakers, academics and the general public. While several factors have contributed to the high equality in the country, it is safe to say that the egalitarian ethic in Japanese corporate culture is one of these reasons. This is reflected, for example, in the income structure; Japanese CEOs earn remarkably less than their counterparts in the United Kingdom or the United States. In a ranking of the average income of business leaders worldwide by country, Japan did not even make it into the list of the top ten countries.

Japan JP: Proportion of People Living Below 50 Percent Of Median Income: % data was reported at 9.100 % in 2013. This records an increase from the previous number of 8.700 % for 2010. Japan JP: Proportion of People Living Below 50 Percent Of Median Income: % data is updated yearly, averaging 9.100 % from Dec 2008 (Median) to 2013, with 3 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 15.700 % in 2008 and a record low of 8.700 % in 2010. Japan JP: Proportion of People Living Below 50 Percent Of Median Income: % data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by World Bank. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Japan – Table JP.World Bank.WDI: Social: Poverty and Inequality. The percentage of people in the population who live in households whose per capita income or consumption is below half of the median income or consumption per capita. The median is measured at 2017 Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) using the Poverty and Inequality Platform (http://www.pip.worldbank.org). For some countries, medians are not reported due to grouped and/or confidential data. The reference year is the year in which the underlying household survey data was collected. In cases for which the data collection period bridged two calendar years, the first year in which data were collected is reported.;World Bank, Poverty and Inequality Platform. Data are based on primary household survey data obtained from government statistical agencies and World Bank country departments. Data for high-income economies are mostly from the Luxembourg Income Study database. For more information and methodology, please see http://pip.worldbank.org.;;The World Bank’s internationally comparable poverty monitoring database now draws on income or detailed consumption data from more than 2000 household surveys across 169 countries. See the Poverty and Inequality Platform (PIP) for details (www.pip.worldbank.org).

This is the replication package for the paper, Kumon (2025) "Adoption, Inheritance, and Wealth Inequality in Pre-industrial Japan and Western Europe" in the Journal of Economic History

Japan JP: Gini Coefficient (GINI Index): World Bank Estimate data was reported at 32.100 % in 2008. Japan JP: Gini Coefficient (GINI Index): World Bank Estimate data is updated yearly, averaging 32.100 % from Dec 2008 (Median) to 2008, with 1 observations. Japan JP: Gini Coefficient (GINI Index): World Bank Estimate data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by World Bank. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Japan – Table JP.World Bank.WDI: Poverty. Gini index measures the extent to which the distribution of income (or, in some cases, consumption expenditure) among individuals or households within an economy deviates from a perfectly equal distribution. A Lorenz curve plots the cumulative percentages of total income received against the cumulative number of recipients, starting with the poorest individual or household. The Gini index measures the area between the Lorenz curve and a hypothetical line of absolute equality, expressed as a percentage of the maximum area under the line. Thus a Gini index of 0 represents perfect equality, while an index of 100 implies perfect inequality.; ; World Bank, Development Research Group. Data are based on primary household survey data obtained from government statistical agencies and World Bank country departments. For more information and methodology, please see PovcalNet (http://iresearch.worldbank.org/PovcalNet/index.htm).; ; The World Bank’s internationally comparable poverty monitoring database now draws on income or detailed consumption data from more than one thousand six hundred household surveys across 164 countries in six regions and 25 other high income countries (industrialized economies). While income distribution data are published for all countries with data available, poverty data are published for low- and middle-income countries and countries eligible to receive loans from the World Bank (such as Chile) and recently graduated countries (such as Estonia) only. See PovcalNet (http://iresearch.worldbank.org/PovcalNet/WhatIsNew.aspx) for definitions of geographical regions and industrialized countries.

A breakdown of annual household incomes in Japan showed that around ***** percent of households earned less than *** million Japanese yen per year as of 2024. That year, the average annual household income of Japanese households was approximately *** million yen compared to a median household income of *** million yen.

Comparing the *** selected regions regarding the gini index , South Africa is leading the ranking (**** points) and is followed by Namibia with **** points. At the other end of the spectrum is Slovakia with **** points, indicating a difference of *** points to South Africa. The Gini coefficient here measures the degree of income inequality on a scale from * (=total equality of incomes) to *** (=total inequality).The shown data are an excerpt of Statista's Key Market Indicators (KMI). The KMI are a collection of primary and secondary indicators on the macro-economic, demographic and technological environment in more than *** countries and regions worldwide. All input data are sourced from international institutions, national statistical offices, and trade associations. All data has been are processed to generate comparable datasets (see supplementary notes under details for more information).

Japan JP: Poverty Headcount Ratio at $2.15 a Day: 2017 PPP: % of Population data was reported at 0.700 % in 2013. This records an increase from the previous number of 0.000 % for 2010. Japan JP: Poverty Headcount Ratio at $2.15 a Day: 2017 PPP: % of Population data is updated yearly, averaging 0.500 % from Dec 2008 (Median) to 2013, with 3 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 0.700 % in 2013 and a record low of 0.000 % in 2010. Japan JP: Poverty Headcount Ratio at $2.15 a Day: 2017 PPP: % of Population data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by World Bank. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Japan – Table JP.World Bank.WDI: Social: Poverty and Inequality. Poverty headcount ratio at $2.15 a day is the percentage of the population living on less than $2.15 a day at 2017 purchasing power adjusted prices. As a result of revisions in PPP exchange rates, poverty rates for individual countries cannot be compared with poverty rates reported in earlier editions.;World Bank, Poverty and Inequality Platform. Data are based on primary household survey data obtained from government statistical agencies and World Bank country departments. Data for high-income economies are mostly from the Luxembourg Income Study database. For more information and methodology, please see http://pip.worldbank.org.;;The World Bank’s internationally comparable poverty monitoring database now draws on income or detailed consumption data from more than 2000 household surveys across 169 countries. See the Poverty and Inequality Platform (PIP) for details (www.pip.worldbank.org).

Japan JP: Poverty Headcount Ratio at $3.65 a Day: 2017 PPP: % of Population data was reported at 0.900 % in 2013. This records an increase from the previous number of 0.200 % for 2010. Japan JP: Poverty Headcount Ratio at $3.65 a Day: 2017 PPP: % of Population data is updated yearly, averaging 0.900 % from Dec 2008 (Median) to 2013, with 3 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 1.000 % in 2008 and a record low of 0.200 % in 2010. Japan JP: Poverty Headcount Ratio at $3.65 a Day: 2017 PPP: % of Population data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by World Bank. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Japan – Table JP.World Bank.WDI: Social: Poverty and Inequality. Poverty headcount ratio at $3.65 a day is the percentage of the population living on less than $3.65 a day at 2017 international prices.;World Bank, Poverty and Inequality Platform. Data are based on primary household survey data obtained from government statistical agencies and World Bank country departments. Data for high-income economies are mostly from the Luxembourg Income Study database. For more information and methodology, please see http://pip.worldbank.org.;;The World Bank’s internationally comparable poverty monitoring database now draws on income or detailed consumption data from more than 2000 household surveys across 169 countries. See the Poverty and Inequality Platform (PIP) for details (www.pip.worldbank.org).

The purpose of this retrospective cohort study was to analyze the association between income level and health care access in Japan. Data from a total of 222,259 subjects (age range, 0–74 years) who submitted National Health Insurance claims in Chiba City from April 2012 to March 2014 and who declared income for the tax period from January 1 to December 31, 2012 were integrated and analyzed. The generalized estimating equation, in which household was defined as a cluster, was used to evaluate the association between equivalent income and utilization and duration of hospitalization and outpatient care services. A significant positive linear association was observed between income level and outpatient visit rates among all age groups of both sexes; however, a significantly higher rate and longer period of hospitalization, and longer outpatient care, were observed among certain lower income subgroups. To control for decreased income due to hospitalization, subjects hospitalized during the previous year were excluded, and the data was then reanalyzed. Significant inverse associations remained in the hospitalization rate among 40–59-year-old men and 60–69-year-old women, and in duration of hospitalization among 40–59 and 60–69-year-olds of both sexes and 70–74-year-old women. These results suggest that low-income individuals in Japan have poorer access to outpatient care and more serious health conditions than their higher income counterparts.

In 2024, the overall gender gap index score in Japan reached 0.66 points, a slight increase compared to recent years. Japan ranked 118th out of 146 countries covered by the global gender gap index, placing the country far behind other G7 nations. Reasons behind Japan’s low ranking  Japan’s gender gap score in education and health indicated a closed or almost closed gender gap. However, in terms of political empowerment, Japan ranked well below the average global score, placing it among the lowest ranks within East Asia and the Pacific region. A high disparity between men and women in economic participation was another crucial reason for Japan’s poor ranking compared to other industrial nations. The low scores were mainly due to the nation’s small number of female parliamentarians, as well as a low ratio of women in managerial positions. Women in Japan Modern Japanese women enjoy more freedom, have better access to education, and have broader job opportunities compared to previous generations. Yet, traditional gender roles and male favoritism are still pervasive in Japanese culture. Japan's ongoing discussion on gender equality measures, or the lack thereof, is often highlighted in local and international media. The Japanese government currently aims to achieve a significant increase in female proportion in the political, judicial, and economic fields by the end of 2025, targeting 30 percent or more of the female share in a broad range of positions. This might fast-track the long-overdue generational change, which seems necessary to incite diversity in the country.

In 2023, the gender pay gap for the median wages in Japan was ** percent. Compared to other OECD countries, Japan was one of the countries with the highest gender pay gap during the measured period.

In 2024, the gross domestic product (GDP) of China amounted to around 18.7 trillion U.S. dollars. In comparison to the GDP of the other BRIC countries India, Russia and Brazil, China came first that year and second in the world GDP ranking. The stagnation of China's GDP in U.S. dollar terms in 2022 and 2023 was mainly due to the appreciation of the U.S. dollar. China's real GDP growth was 3.1 percent in 2022 and 5.4 percent in 2023. In 2024, per capita GDP in China reached around 13,300 U.S. dollars. Economic performance in China Gross domestic product (GDP) is a primary economic indicator. It measures the total value of all goods and services produced in an economy over a certain time period. China's economy used to grow quickly in the past, but the growth rate of China’s real GDP gradually slowed down in recent years, and year-on-year GDP growth is forecasted to range at only around four percent in the years after 2024. Since 2010, China has been the world’s second-largest economy, surpassing Japan.China’s emergence in the world’s economy has a lot to do with its status as the ‘world’s factory’. Since 2013, China is the largest export country in the world. Some argue that it is partly due to the undervalued Chinese currency. The Big Mac Index, a simplified and informal way to measure the purchasing power parity between different currencies, indicates that the Chinese currency yuan was roughly undervalued by 38 percent in 2024. GDP development Although the impressive economic development in China has led millions of people out of poverty, China is still not in the league of industrialized countries on the per capita basis. To name one example, the U.S. per capita economic output was more than six times as large as in China in 2024. Meanwhile, the Chinese society faces increased income disparities. The Gini coefficient of China, a widely used indicator of economic inequality, has been larger than 0.45 over the last decade, whereas 0.40 is the warning level for social unrest.

AimLong-term care systems may alleviate caregiver burdens, particularly for those with fewer resources. However, it remains unclear whether socioeconomic disparity in caregiver burdens exists under a public, universal long-term care insurance (LTCI) system. This study examined income-based inequalities in caregiving time and depressive symptoms in Japanese older family caregivers. We further compared inequality in depressive symptoms with that of non-caregivers to evaluate whether family caregiving exacerbates this disparity.MethodsData were obtained from a cross-sectional, nationwide survey conducted by the Japan Gerontological Evaluation Study in 2013. Participants were functionally independent older adults aged ≥65 years (N = 21,584). Depressive symptoms were assessed using the Geriatrics Depression Scale (GDS); caregiving hours per week, household income, and other covariates were also assessed.ResultsFamily caregivers occupied 8.3% of the total. A Poisson regression model revealed that caregivers in lower income groups (compared to those in the highest) were 1.32 to 1.95 and 1.63 to 2.68 times more likely to engage in ≥36 and ≥72 hours/week of caregiving, respectively. As for the GDS (≥5), an excess risk was found in the caregivers in lower (compared to higher) income groups (adjusted prevalence ratio: 1.57–3.10). However, an interaction effect of income by caregiving role indicated no significant difference in inequality between caregivers and non-caregivers (p = .603). The excess risk for GDS (≥5) in the caregivers compared to non-caregivers was observed across income groups.ConclusionsOur findings revealed a possible disparity in family caregivers under the public LTCI system. Further studies should examine factors associated with longer caregiving hours in lower income households. Our findings also suggest the necessity for more efforts to alleviate depressive symptoms in family caregivers under the LTCI system regardless of income level, rather than exclusively supporting those with a low income.

As of March 2025, South Africa had the highest unemployment rate among the 19* countries that are members of the G20. The unemployment rate in South Africa stood at **** percent that year. The country has recently been plagued by an economic downturn, including energy shortages and high unemployment levels. On the other hand, Japan had the lowest unemployment rate at just *** percent. Economic inequality in South Africa Not only does South Africa top the G20 in overall unemployment, but it also has a significant level of youth unemployment, as nearly half of the young population is unemployed. Thirty years after the end of Apartheid, South Africa is also still one of the most unequal countries in the world, with a Gini score of ****. The prominence of inequality in the country makes escaping unemployment and underemployment difficult. Japanese economic slowdown While Japan had the lowest unemployment rate out of all G20 nations, as well as the lowest youth unemployment rate out of the G20 nations, Japan’s economy is still facing many challenges. With an aging population, the total Japanese population is facing a rapid decline, meaning that it will struggle to have enough workers participating in the labor market. Despite this, Japan maintains strict immigration policies, limiting the chances for foreign workers to move to Japan. Moreover, Japan has the second lowest fertility rate out of the G7 nations and one of the lowest fertility rates globally, adding another challenge in addressing population shrinkage.

BackgroundExposure to second hand smoke (SHS) is one of the major causes of premature death and disease among children. While socioeconomic inequalities exist for adult smoking, such evidence is limited for SHS exposure in children. Thus, this study examined changes over time in socioeconomic inequalities in infants’ SHS exposure in Japan.MethodsThis is a repeated cross-sectional study of 41,833 infants born in 2001 and 32,120 infants born in 2010 in Japan from nationally representative surveys using questionnaires. The prevalence of infants’ SHS exposure was determined and related to household income and parental education level. The magnitudes of income and educational inequalities in infants’ SHS exposure were estimated in 2001 and 2010 using both absolute and relative inequality indices.ResultsThe prevalence of SHS exposure in infants declined from 2001 to 2010. The relative index of inequality increased from 0.85 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.80 to 0.89) to 1.47 (95% CI, 1.37 to 1.56) based on income and from 1.22 (95% CI, 1.17 to 1.26) to 2.09 (95% CI, 2.00 to 2.17) based on education. In contrast, the slope index of inequality decreased from 30.9 (95% CI, 29.3 to 32.6) to 20.1 (95% CI, 18.7 to 21.5) based on income and from 44.6 (95% CI, 43.1 to 46.2) to 28.7 (95% CI, 27.3 to 30.0) based on education. Having only a father who smoked indoors was a major contributor to absolute income inequality in infants’ SHS exposure in 2010, which increased in importance from 45.1% in 2001 to 67.0% in 2010.ConclusionsThe socioeconomic inequalities in infants’ second hand smoke exposure increased in relative terms but decreased in absolute terms from 2001 to 2010. Further efforts are needed to encourage parents to quit smoking and protect infants from second hand smoke exposure, especially in low socioeconomic households that include non-smoking mothers.

According to a survey conducted in December 2020, over 25 percent of respondents in Japan aged 17 to 19 years believed that the difference in the economic power of households causes educational inequality. In the same survey, about 49 percent of all respondents stated that they noticed a gap in education in the country.

Adjusted prevalence ratios (95% confidence intervals) for engaging in long caregiving hours (≥36 or ≥72) by income groupa.

In 2023, men aged 55 to 59 years old earned the highest average monthly salaries among male full-time workers in Japan, receiving a monthly income of 427.4 thousand Japanese yen on average. The average wage decreased significantly once workers entered their sixties.

Adjusted prevalence ratios (95% confidence intervals) for geriatric depression scale score (≥5) in caregivers and non-caregivers by income groupa.

In 2023, women aged 50 to 54 years old earned the highest average monthly salaries among female full-time workers in Japan, reaching a monthly income of about 286 thousand Japanese yen. The average wage decreased significantly once workers entered their sixties.