The average wholesale electricity price in July 2025 in the United Kingdom is forecast to amount to****** British pounds per megawatt-hour, a decrease from the previous month. A record high was reached in August 2022 when day-ahead baseload contracts averaged ***** British pounds per megawatt-hour.
Electricity price stabilization in Europe Electricity prices increased in 2024 compared to the previous year, when prices stabilized after the energy supply shortage. Price spikes were driven by the growing wholesale prices of natural gas and coal worldwide, which are among the main sources of power in the region.

… and in the United Kingdom? The United Kingdom was one of the countries with the highest electricity prices worldwide during the energy crisis. Since then, prices have been stabilizing, almost to pre-energy crisis levels. The use of nuclear, wind, and bioenergy for electricity generation has been increasing recently. The fuel types are an alternative to fossil fuels and are part of the country's power generation plans going into the future.

Retail residential electricity prices in the United States have mostly risen over the last decades. In 2023, prices registered a year-over-year growth of 6.3 percent, the highest growth registered since the beginning of the century. Residential prices are projected to continue to grow by two percent in 2024. Drivers of electricity price growth The price of electricity is partially dependent on the various energy sources used for generation, such as coal, gas, oil, renewable energy, or nuclear. In the U.S., electricity prices are highly connected to natural gas prices. As the commodity is exposed to international markets that pay a higher rate, U.S. prices are also expected to rise, as it has been witnessed during the energy crisis in 2022. Electricity demand is also expected to increase, especially in regions that will likely require more heating or cooling as climate change impacts progress, driving up electricity prices. Which states pay the most for electricity? Electricity prices can vary greatly depending on both state and region. Hawaii has the highest electricity prices in the U.S., at roughly 43 U.S. cents per kilowatt-hour as of May 2023, due to the high costs of crude oil used to fuel the state’s electricity. In comparison, Idaho has one of the lowest retail rates. Much of the state’s energy is generated from hydroelectricity, which requires virtually no fuel. In addition, construction costs can be spread out over decades.

Abstract of associated article: Abnormally high price spikes in spot electricity markets represent a significant risk to market participants. As such, a literature has developed that focuses on forecasting the probability of such spike events, moving beyond simply forecasting the level of price. Many univariate time series models have been proposed to deal with spikes within an individual market region. This paper is the first to develop a multivariate self-exciting point process model for dealing with price spikes across connected regions in the Australian National Electricity Market. The importance of the physical infrastructure connecting the regions on the transmission of spikes is examined. It is found that spikes are transmitted between the regions, and the size of spikes is influenced by the available transmission capacity. It is also found that improved risk estimates are obtained when inter-regional linkages are taken into account.

Electricity prices in the U.S. have surged due to rising demand from heatwaves and data centers, alongside investments in grid infrastructure.

As of December 2024, Guatemala had the highest household electricity price among Latin American countries, with an average of **** U.S. dollars per kilowatt-hour. Argentina reported the lowest rate among the countries displayed, at less than **** U.S. dollars per kilowatt-hour. Electricity prices across the American continent Electricity prices vary considerably across the American continent. The Caribbean country of Jamaica accounted for the highest household electricity price on the continent, after Guatemala and Uruguay, at **** U.S. dollars per kilowatt-hour. In comparison, the residential electricity price in the United States amounted to approximately **** U.S. dollars per kilowatt-hour, like in Brazil. Global electricity prices After recovering from the global energy crisis, global electricity prices fell in most countries worldwide. The wildest price spikes occurred in countries that heavily rely on fossil fuels and energy imports, like the European countries. In some cases, price caps set by governmental institutions kept domestic electricity prices under a certain threshold, such as in Brazil.

UK Electricity decreased 20.50 GBP/MWh or 20.01% since the beginning of 2025, according to the latest spot benchmarks offered by sellers to buyers priced in megawatt hour (MWh). This dataset includes a chart with historical data for the United Kingdom Electricity Price.

Electricity prices in Europe are expected to remain volatile through 2025, with Italy projected to have some of the highest rates among major European economies. This trend reflects the ongoing challenges in the energy sector, including the transition to renewable sources and the impact of geopolitical events on supply chains. Despite efforts to stabilize the market, prices in countries like Italy are forecast to reach ****** euros per megawatt hour by February 2025, indicating persistent pressure on consumers and businesses alike. Natural gas futures shaping electricity costs The electricity market's future trajectory is closely tied to natural gas prices, a key component in power generation. Dutch TTF gas futures, a benchmark for European natural gas prices, are projected to be ***** euros per megawatt hour in July 2025. The reduced output from the Groningen gas field and increased reliance on imports further complicate the pricing landscape, potentially contributing to higher electricity costs in countries like Italy. Regional disparities and global market influences While European electricity prices remain high, significant regional differences persist. For instance, natural gas prices in the United States are expected to be roughly one-third of those in Europe by March 2025, at **** U.S. dollars per million British thermal units. This stark contrast highlights the impact of domestic production capabilities on global natural gas prices. Europe's greater reliance on imports, particularly in the aftermath of geopolitical tensions and the shift away from Russian gas, continues to keep prices elevated compared to more self-sufficient markets. As a result, countries like Italy may face sustained pressure on electricity prices due to their position within the broader European energy market.

The electricity price for average household consumers in Italy peaked at ** euro cents per kilowatt-hour in the fourth quarter of 2022. This figure set an all-time electricity price record for Italy. Since 2021, electricity prices for domestic consumption kept increasing in Italy, driven by the growth of coal and natural gas prices. The main factors contributing to the European electricity price spike were the economic recovery after the COVID-19 pandemic in 2021 and the interruption of Russian imports following the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022. As of 2025, prices recorded an increase.

The global voltage spike generator market is experiencing robust growth, driven by increasing demand for reliable power systems across various industries. The market size in 2025 is estimated at $250 million, exhibiting a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 7% from 2025 to 2033. This growth is fueled by several key factors, including the rising adoption of renewable energy sources (requiring robust surge protection), the expansion of smart grids (increasing vulnerability to power fluctuations), and the growing importance of data center reliability (where voltage spikes can cause significant downtime and data loss). Stringent regulatory compliance requirements regarding power quality further contribute to market expansion. Major trends include the miniaturization of voltage spike generators, the integration of advanced monitoring capabilities, and a shift towards higher-power devices capable of handling more extreme voltage variations. Despite these positive trends, certain restraints hinder market growth. These include the high initial investment cost associated with implementing surge protection solutions, the complexities of integrating such devices into existing infrastructure, and the potential for compatibility issues between different generator models and systems. However, ongoing technological advancements and the rising awareness of the significant financial and operational consequences of power disruptions are expected to mitigate these limitations and fuel continued market expansion. Key players in the market, including EMC Partner, Solar Electronics, 3Ctest, Ametek, and others, are focusing on innovation, strategic partnerships, and expansion into new geographical regions to maintain their competitive edge.

Retail Power Market Outlook

Based on our latest research, the global retail power market size in 2024 stands at USD 315.6 billion, reflecting a dynamic sector shaped by evolving energy demands and regulatory reforms. The market is experiencing robust expansion, registering a CAGR of 6.1% from 2025 to 2033. By 2033, the retail power market is forecasted to reach USD 537.3 billion, underpinned by increasing consumer awareness, technological advancements, and the global shift toward renewable energy sources. As per our latest research, key growth factors include the proliferation of deregulated energy markets, rising adoption of green power solutions, and the digital transformation of retail electricity distribution.

The growth trajectory of the retail power market is significantly influenced by the ongoing deregulation and liberalization of electricity markets worldwide. Deregulation has enabled the entry of independent retailers, breaking the monopoly of traditional utility providers and giving consumers the power to choose from a variety of electricity plans tailored to their needs. This competitive environment has spurred innovation in product offerings, such as fixed and variable rate plans, green power options, and prepaid electricity, catering to diverse consumer preferences. Additionally, regulatory support for open access and consumer-centric policies in regions like North America and Europe has accelerated market expansion, driving both customer acquisition and supplier diversification.

Another key driver is the growing demand for sustainable and renewable energy solutions. As environmental consciousness rises among consumers and businesses, there is a marked shift toward green power products. Utility-owned and independent retailers are increasingly integrating renewable energy sources, such as wind, solar, and hydroelectric power, into their portfolios. This transition is further propelled by government incentives, renewable portfolio standards, and corporate sustainability commitments. The result is a rapidly expanding segment of green power offerings within the retail power market, fostering innovation in energy procurement, distribution, and customer engagement strategies.

Digital transformation is also playing a pivotal role in reshaping the retail power market. The proliferation of online platforms and digital marketplaces has revolutionized the way consumers purchase electricity, allowing for easy comparison of rates, contract terms, and provider reputations. Advanced metering infrastructure, real-time data analytics, and customer relationship management tools have enabled providers to offer personalized energy solutions, improve billing accuracy, and enhance customer service. These technological advancements are reducing operational costs, increasing transparency, and fostering greater customer loyalty, thereby contributing to sustained market growth.

From a regional perspective, North America remains the dominant market, driven by a mature deregulated landscape and high consumer adoption of innovative retail electricity products. Europe follows closely, supported by stringent environmental regulations and ambitious renewable energy targets. The Asia Pacific region is emerging as a high-growth market, fueled by rapid urbanization, industrialization, and government-led reforms to open up electricity markets. Latin America and the Middle East & Africa are gradually embracing retail power models, with policy shifts and infrastructure investments expected to accelerate growth in the coming years. Each region’s unique regulatory, economic, and demographic factors shape the competitive dynamics and growth opportunities within the global retail power market.

Type Analysis

The retail power market is segmented by type into fixed rate, variable rate, green power, and prepaid electricity offerings, each catering to distinct consumer needs and risk appetites. Fixed rate plans provide consumers with price stability over the contract period, making them particularly attractive in volatile energy markets. These plans are favored by residential and small commercial customers who prioritize budget predictability and protection against price spikes. The widespread adoption of fixed rate products is supported by aggressive marketing campaigns from both utility-owned and independent retailers, emphasizing transparency and long-term savings. This segment continues to capture a significan

The Electric Utilities industry comprises all stages required to deliver electricity to end users in France, including generation, transmission, distribution and retail supply. EDF dominates the industry through its ownership of France’s nuclear power fleet in the electricity generation segment and leading share of customer accounts in the electricity retail supply segment. Decarbonisation efforts have shaped France’s electricity value chain in recent years, with developments in energy efficiency weighing on electricity consumption. Revenue is forecast to expand at a compound annual rate of 9.9% over the five years through 2025, reaching €143.3 billion. The pandemic spurred a drop in electricity consumption in 2020, driving a decline in electricity generation and supply volumes and pushing down revenue. France’s dependence on domestic nuclear power initially insulated consumers from the full impact of soaring fossil fuel prices in the aftermath of the pandemic. However, a slump in output from nuclear power and renewables left France exposed to a renewed surge in fossil fuel prices following Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in 2022. This caused a spike in revenue in the electricity generation segment of the industry, though growth was held back by government intervention at the retail supply level. A resulting slump in the retail supply segment was offset by growing profit from non-gas electricity generation and artificially high returns in the electricity transmission and distribution segments. Renewed growth in nuclear power output and a gradual normalisation in global energy markets have since caused revenue to come down. That being said, revenue is expected to remain above pre-pandemic levels in the current year, as wholesale prices remain elevated and the government is pursuing tax hikes on energy bills to recoup funds used to support consumers through the energy crisis. Still, revenue is set to decline by 4.4% in 2025. Over the five years through 2030, revenue is slated to expand at a compound annual rate of 0.6% to reach €147.4 billion. Revenue is set to continue to moderate in the near term as energy prices continue to come down from the extraordinary highs recorded in recent years. The electricity generation segment will be characterised by accelerated expansion of renewables capacity in the coming years as the French government pursues decarbonisation objectives. The electrification of transport raises the prospect of renewed growth in electricity consumption, boosting revenue in the electricity supply segment.

The Electricity Supply industry has developed considerably since its liberalisation in 1999. Following a period in which the Big Six suppliers dominated, energy regulator Ofgem endeavoured to introduce greater competition to the market as part of attempts to drive down energy bills. Major mergers and acquisitions effectively brought the dominance of the former Big Six suppliers to an end at the end of 2019-20. Along with weakening electricity consumption, swelling competition has applied further pressure on revenue in recent years. Electricity suppliers' revenue is slated to climb at a compound annual rate of 4.7% to reach £49.8 billion over the five years through 2024-25. The introduction of the standard variable tariff price cap in January 2019 squeezed revenue growth. The pandemic exacerbated the drop in revenue, as widespread tariff reductions compounded the effects of reduced electricity consumption. With suppliers bound by the energy price cap, soaring wholesale prices led to widening operating losses in 2021-22, albeit with a modest revenue recovery. A renewed spike in wholesale prices led to a continued wave of insolvencies among energy suppliers going into 2022-23, with 31 suppliers falling victim to the energy crisis. Soaring non-domestic energy bills and significant hikes to the SVT price cap spurred significant revenue growth in 2022-23, while the transfer of customer accounts from failed suppliers reinstated the dominance of major suppliers. The introduction of the Energy Price Guarantee (EPG) and support for business energy customers prevented energy prices from spiralling out of control going into 2023-24. A faster-than-anticipated drop in wholesale electricity prices has eased pressure on operating profit in the current year, contributing to an estimated 10.1% revenue contraction. Revenue is forecast to sink at a compound annual rate of 0.9% to £47.6 billion over the five years through 2029-30. Prices will remain elevated in the medium term as concerns surrounding supplies of Russian fossil fuels into Europe inflate wholesale costs. Wholesale prices are set to stabilise in the long term, spurring tariff reductions. The continued drop in electricity consumption is also set to limit growth prospects in the coming years.

Bird Spikes Market Outlook

The global bird spikes market size was valued at approximately $1.2 billion in 2023 and is projected to reach around $2.1 billion by 2032, growing at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 6.3% from 2024 to 2032. This growth is primarily driven by increasing demand for bird control solutions in urban areas to prevent bird-related nuisances and infrastructure damage, combined with rising awareness about humane bird deterrence methods. Urbanization and the accompanying challenges of bird management in densely populated areas have necessitated the adoption of bird spikes, which offer an effective and humane method of deterring birds from perching on buildings, signage, and infrastructure.

One of the key growth factors for the bird spikes market is the increasing urbanization and industrialization across the globe. As cities expand and industrial areas develop, there is a growing need to manage wildlife, particularly birds, that can cause considerable damage to property and pose health risks. Urban infrastructures such as buildings, bridges, and monuments are particularly susceptible to bird infestations, which can result in costly repairs and maintenance. Bird spikes serve as an efficient and cost-effective solution to mitigate these issues by preventing birds from settling in undesirable areas, thus protecting assets and reducing maintenance expenses.

Another significant driver for the bird spikes market is the heightened awareness and regulations regarding bird protection and urban wildlife management. Government regulations and guidelines advocating for humane wildlife control methods are compelling property owners and facility managers to adopt bird spikes. These deterrents are favored for their non-lethal nature and effectiveness, which align with ethical considerations and legal requirements related to wildlife conservation. Consequently, the demand for bird spikes has surged as they help property owners comply with these regulations while maintaining the integrity and cleanliness of their properties.

Technological advancements and product innovations in bird spike designs are also contributing to market growth. Manufacturers are continually developing new materials and designs to enhance the durability, ease of installation, and aesthetic appeal of bird spikes. The introduction of UV-resistant and weatherproof materials, for example, has improved the longevity and performance of these deterrents under various environmental conditions. Additionally, aesthetically pleasing designs that blend seamlessly with modern architecture are appealing to both residential and commercial customers, further driving the adoption of bird spikes.

In the realm of bird management, the Power Line Bird Guard has emerged as an innovative solution to address the challenges posed by birds on power infrastructure. These guards are specifically designed to prevent birds from perching on power lines, thereby reducing the risk of power outages and equipment damage caused by bird activity. The integration of Power Line Bird Guards not only enhances the reliability of power supply but also aligns with environmental conservation efforts by minimizing bird fatalities associated with electrical infrastructure. As urban areas continue to expand, the demand for effective bird deterrents like the Power Line Bird Guard is expected to rise, offering a sustainable approach to managing avian interactions with critical infrastructure.

Regionally, North America is a significant market for bird spikes, driven by stringent regulations on building maintenance and wildlife management. The region's focus on maintaining the architectural heritage of cities, coupled with the need for cost-effective pest control solutions, supports the adoption of bird spikes. Europe follows closely with robust demand, particularly in urban centers with historical buildings that require preservation from avian damage. Meanwhile, the Asia Pacific region is anticipated to exhibit the fastest growth, attributed to rapid urbanization, increasing disposable incomes, and heightened awareness of the benefits of bird deterrence solutions. Emerging economies in Latin America and the Middle East & Africa are also expected to contribute to market growth, although at a slower pace compared to other regions.

Product Type Analysis

The bird spikes market is segmented into several product types, including plastic bird spikes, stainless steel bird spikes, and polycarbonate bird spikes, eac

Market Overview:

The Global Spike Suppressors Market is expected to grow at a CAGR of 4.5% from 2022 to 2030. The growth of the global spike suppressors market can be attributed to the increasing demand for communication and construction applications and rising concerns over power quality and safety across the globe. Based on type, the global spike suppressor market is segmented into power type, signal type, and others.

Product Definition:

A spike suppressor is an electronic device or circuit that reduces the magnitude of transient voltage spikes on electrical signals. The importance of spike suppressors is that they protect equipment from being damaged by sudden voltage spikes.

Power Type:

Power type is the classification of spike suppressors based on the method by which they are attached to the cable. There are two basic types of power-type: plug-in and terminal. The terminal power type has a larger market share as compared to its counterpart owing to its high price, but it is expected that over some time, plug-in power type will witness significant growth due to their easy installation process and low maintenance cost.

Signal Type:

Signal type is a classification of noise generated by electrical devices. It can be categorized as common-mode noise, differential-mode noise, and thermal Noise. Signal type is used in spike suppressors to differentiate between normal operation and fault conditions. The different types of signals are distinguished with the help of their amplitudes and frequencies which helps in identifying the cause for malfunctioning or generation of spikes.

Application Insights:

The application segment is segregated into communication, construction, electric power, transportation, and oil and gas. The construction segment accounted for the largest share in 2015 owing to rising demand from industrial applications such as machine tools. In addition, these devices are used in hazardous environments where the use of hearing protectors is required by law. These devices help prevent hearing loss due to exposure to hazardous noise at work sites or while using listening devices such as headphones at high volume levels. The communication sector dominated the global industry with a revenue share of over 40% on account of extensive usage across various applications such as sound recording studios & live shows among others which require amplification with precision & clarity for better audio output resulting in higher sales volumes over the forecast period.

Regional Analysis:

North America dominated the global market in terms of revenue share. The U.S., being a developed nation, is expected to witness high demand for these products over the forecast period. However, Asia Pacific is anticipated to be the fastest-growing regional market from 2022 to 2030 owing to increasing military operations and activities by various countries across this region coupled with rising geopolitical tensions between nations such as China and India and other neighboring countries such as Japan, South Korea, North Korea, Philippines, etc.; which are likely to increase spending on defense equipment & services thereby driving the demand for spike suppressors over the projected period.

Growth Factors:

• Increasing demand for firearms from the law enforcement and military sectors.
• Rising incidences of crime and terrorism.
• Stringent gun control measures by governments across the world.
• The growing popularity of shooting sports as a recreational activity.
• Technological advancements in firearm suppressor designs and materials.

Report Scope

Peaking Power Plants Market Outlook

The global peaking power plants market size was valued at approximately USD 15 billion in 2023 and is projected to reach around USD 25 billion by 2032, growing at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 5.5% during the forecast period. The growth of this market is primarily driven by the increasing demand for reliable and flexible power supply to manage peak load periods, especially in regions with fluctuating energy demands.

One primary growth factor for the peaking power plants market is the rising global energy demand. As economies grow and urbanize, the need for electricity surges, particularly during peak consumption hours. Peaking power plants, which can be quickly ramped up to meet sudden spikes in electricity demand, are crucial in preventing blackouts and ensuring a stable power supply. This ensures that industries, businesses, and residential areas have consistent access to electricity, which is fundamental for economic growth and societal well-being.

Another significant driver is the increasing integration of renewable energy sources into the power grid. While renewable energy technologies such as wind and solar are beneficial for reducing carbon emissions, they are often intermittent and unable to provide a constant power supply. Peaking power plants can complement these renewable sources by providing backup power when renewables are not generating electricity. This combination helps in maintaining grid stability and reliability, which is essential for the continuous adoption and success of renewable energy initiatives.

Technological advancements in power plant equipment and operations also contribute to the market's growth. Innovations in gas turbines, combined cycle gas turbines, and reciprocating engines have made peaking power plants more efficient and environmentally friendly. These advancements have lowered the operational costs and emissions associated with peaking power plants, making them a more viable option for utilities and governments looking to balance economic and environmental goals. The adoption of smart grid technologies further enhances the effectiveness of peaking power plants by enabling better demand forecasting and real-time energy management.

From a regional perspective, the demand for peaking power plants varies across different markets. In North America, for instance, the aging power infrastructure and the push towards cleaner energy solutions are significant factors driving market growth. Europe, on the other hand, is experiencing an increased demand due to its ambitious renewable energy targets and the need for backup power solutions. The Asia Pacific region is witnessing rapid urbanization and industrialization, leading to a surge in electricity demand and, consequently, a higher need for peaking power plants. Meanwhile, Latin America and the Middle East & Africa are also showing potential for market growth due to their expanding energy sectors and efforts to improve grid reliability.

Fuel Type Analysis

The peaking power plants market can be segmented by fuel type into natural gas, diesel, renewable energy, and others. Natural gas is the most widely used fuel for peaking power plants due to its abundance, relatively low cost, and lower emissions compared to other fossil fuels. Natural gas peaking power plants are highly efficient and can be quickly ramped up to meet peak electricity demand. With the increasing availability of natural gas through improved extraction techniques like hydraulic fracturing, the reliance on natural gas for peaking power plants is expected to continue growing.

Diesel-fueled peaking power plants, while less common than natural gas plants, still hold a significant share of the market. Diesel engines are known for their robustness and reliability, making them suitable for remote areas where access to other fuels might be limited. However, the high cost of diesel and the environmental concerns associated with its combustion are driving a gradual shift away from diesel towards cleaner alternatives. Nevertheless, diesel remains a critical fuel type in regions where other options are not feasible.

Renewable energy sources are emerging as a promising segment within the peaking power plants market. Technologies such as battery storage, hydropower, and bioenergy are increasingly being integrated into peaking power plant operations to provide flexible and sustainable power solutions. While the initial investment in renewable energy peaking plants can be higher, the long-term benefits in terms of reduced emissions and lower

The global spike surge suppressor market is experiencing robust growth, driven by increasing demand for reliable power protection across various sectors. The market, estimated at $5 billion in 2025, is projected to exhibit a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 7% from 2025 to 2033, reaching an estimated value of approximately $8.5 billion by 2033. This growth is fueled by several key factors, including the rising adoption of sensitive electronic equipment in homes, businesses, and industrial settings. The increasing prevalence of power outages and surges, coupled with stricter regulatory standards regarding data protection and equipment safety, are further driving demand. Key market trends include the integration of smart technologies into surge suppressors, enabling remote monitoring and control, and the growing adoption of higher-capacity suppressors to accommodate the increasing power demands of modern devices. While the market faces certain restraints, such as the high initial cost of sophisticated surge protection devices and potential market saturation in developed regions, the overall outlook remains positive, particularly in emerging economies experiencing rapid industrialization and technological advancements. Companies such as ABB, Eaton, and Schneider Electric are leading the market, leveraging their established brand recognition and extensive product portfolios. The competitive landscape is marked by both established players and niche specialists, constantly innovating to cater to the evolving needs of diverse customer segments. The market is segmented by device type (e.g., power strip surge protectors, whole-home surge protectors, etc.), application (residential, commercial, industrial), and geography. Significant regional variations exist, with North America and Europe currently dominating the market due to high adoption rates and established infrastructure. However, emerging economies in Asia-Pacific and Latin America are demonstrating high growth potential, driven by rising disposable incomes and expanding industrial bases. Ongoing research and development efforts focusing on improving energy efficiency and integrating advanced protection features are set to further fuel the market's growth trajectory in the coming years.

The tri-synaptic pathway in the mammalian hippocampus enables cognitive learning and memory. Despite decades of reports on anatomy and physiology, the functional architecture of the hippocampal network remains poorly understood in terms of the dynamics of axonal information transfer between subregions. Information inputs largely flow from the entorhinal cortex (EC) to the dentate gyrus (DG), and then are processed further in the CA3 and CA1 before returning to the EC. Here, we reconstructed elements of the rat hippocampus in a novel device over an electrode array that allowed for monitoring the directionality of individual axons between the subregions. The direction of spike propagation was determined by the transmission delay of the axons recorded between two electrodes in microfluidic tunnels. The majority of axons from the EC to the DG operated in the feed-forward direction, with other regions developing unexpectedly large proportions of feedback axons to balance excitation. Spike timing in axons between each region followed single exponential log-log distributions over two orders of magnitude from 0.01 to 1 s, indicating that conventional descriptors of mean firing rates are misleading assumptions. Most of the spiking occurred in bursts that required two exponentials to fit the distribution of inter-burst intervals. This suggested the presence of up-states and down-states in every region, with the least up-states in the DG to CA3 feed-forward axons and the CA3 subregion. The peaks of the log-normal distributions of intra-burst spike rates were similar in axons between regions with modes around 95 Hz distributed over an order of magnitude. Burst durations were also log-normally distributed around a peak of 88 ms over two orders of magnitude. Despite the diversity of these spike distributions, spike rates from individual axons were often linearly correlated to subregions. These linear relationships enabled the generation of structural connectivity graphs, not possible previously without the directional flow of axonal information. The rich axonal spike dynamics between subregions of the hippocampus reveal both constraints and broad emergent dynamics of hippocampal architecture. Knowledge of this network architecture may enable more efficient computational artificial intelligence (AI) networks, neuromorphic hardware, and stimulation and decoding from cognitive implants.

The voltage spike generator market is experiencing robust growth, projected to reach a market size of $500 million by 2025, exhibiting a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 8% from 2019 to 2033. This expansion is fueled by several key drivers, including the increasing adoption of renewable energy sources (requiring robust surge protection), the growing demand for reliable power systems in critical infrastructure (data centers, healthcare facilities), and the rising sophistication of electronic devices, making them more susceptible to voltage transients. Furthermore, stringent regulatory compliance standards regarding power quality and equipment protection are contributing to market growth. The market is segmented by various generator types (e.g., AC/DC), power levels, and applications (e.g., testing, industrial protection). Leading companies are focused on innovation, developing advanced features like precise waveform generation, wider voltage ranges, and improved safety mechanisms to cater to evolving market demands. The forecast period (2025-2033) anticipates continued expansion, driven by advancements in testing methodologies, the increasing demand for high-precision testing equipment, and the proliferation of smart grids. While potential restraints like high initial investment costs and the availability of alternative protection methods exist, the overall market outlook remains positive. The competitive landscape includes both established players like Ametek and EMC Partner, and emerging companies, leading to innovation and increased market penetration. Regional growth will vary, with developed regions like North America and Europe leading initially, followed by strong growth in Asia-Pacific due to rapid industrialization and infrastructure development. Future market developments are expected to center around miniaturization, increased automation, and integration with smart grid monitoring systems.

Neural oscillations are prominent features of brain activity, characterized by frequency-specific power changes in electroencephalograms (EEG) and local field potentials (LFP). These oscillations also appear as rhythmic coherence across brain regions. While the identification of oscillations has primarily relied on EEG and LFP, they are also present in neuronal spiking. However, several questions remain unanswered: How do spiking oscillations relate to field potential oscillations? How are spiking oscillations correlated across brain regions? And how are they connected to other physiological and behavioral measures. In this study, we explore the potential to detect individual cycles of neural rhythms solely through the spiking activity of neurons, leveraging recent advances in the high-density recording of large neuronal populations within local networks. The pooled spiking rate of many neurons within a local population reflects shared variation in the membrane potential of nearby neurons, allowing us to identify cyclic patterns. To achieve this, we utilize a Long Short Term Memory (LSTM) network, pre-trained on synthetic data, to effectively isolate and align individual cycles of neural oscillations in the spiking of a densely recorded population of neurons. We applied this approach to robustly isolate specific neural cycles across various brain regions in mice, covering a broad range of timescales, from gamma rhythms to ultra-slow rhythms lasting up to hundreds of seconds. These ultra-slow rhythms, often underrepresented in the LFP, were also detected in behavioral measures of arousal, such as pupil size and mouse facial motion. Interestingly, these rhythms showed delayed coherence with corresponding rhythms in the population spiking activity. Using these isolated neural cycles, we addressed two key questions: 1) How can we account for biological variation in neural signal transmission timing across trials during the sensory stimulation experiments? By isolating gamma cycles driven by sensory input, we achieved a more accurate trial alignment in the sensory stimulation experiments conducted in the primary visual cortex (V1) of mice. This alignment accounts for biological variability in sensory signal transmission times from the retina to V1 across trials, enabling a clearer understanding of neural dynamics in response to sensory stimuli. 2) How do spiking correlations across brain regions vary by timescale? We used the distinct spiking cycles in simultaneously recorded brain regions to examine the correlation of spiking across brain regions, separately for different timescales. Our findings revealed that the delays in population spiking between brain regions vary depending on the brain regions involved and the timescale of the oscillations. This work demonstrates the utility of population spiking activity for isolating neural rhythms, providing insights into oscillatory dynamics across brain regions and their relationship to physiological and behavioral measures.

Alongside the rapid expansion of wind power installation in China, wind curtailment is also mounting rapidly due to China’s energy endowment imbalance. The hydrogen-based wind-energy storage system becomes an alternative to solve the puzzle of wind power surplus. This article introduced China’s energy storage industry development and summarized the advantages of hydrogen-based wind-energy storage systems. From the perspective of resource conservation, it estimated the environmental benefits of hydrogen-based wind-energy storages. This research also builds a valuation model based on the Real Options Theory to capture the distinctive flexible charging and discharging features of the hydrogen-based wind-energy storage systems. Based on the model, simulation results, including the investment value and operation decision of the hydrogen energy storage system with different electricity prices, system parameters, and different levels of subsidies, are presented. The results show that the hydrogen storage system fed with the surplus wind power can annually save approximately 2.19–3.29 million tons of standard coal consumption. It will reduce 3.31–4.97 million tons of CO2, SO2, NOx, and PM, saving as much as 286.6–429.8 million yuan of environmental cost annually on average. The hydrogen-based wind-energy storage system’s value depends on the construction investment and operating costs and is also affected by the mean-reverting nature and jumps or spikes in electricity prices. The market-oriented reform of China’s power sector is conducive to improve hydrogen-based wind-energy storage systems’ profitability. At present, subsidies are still essential to reduce initial investment and attract enterprises to participate in hydrogen energy storage projects.