This statistic shows the national debt of the emerging market and developing economies from 2020 to 2024 in relation to gross domestic product (GDP), with projections up until 2030. The figures are aggregated and refer to the whole country respectively, and include the debts of the state, the communities, the municipalities and the social insurances. In 2024, the national debt of the emerging market and developing economies amounted to approximately 69.47 percent of GDP.

The Emerging Markets Bond Index (EMBI+), commonly known as "riesgo país" in Spanish speaking countries, is a weighted capitalization market benchmark that measures the financial returns obtained each day by a selected portfolio of government bonds from emerging countries. It is measured in base points, which reflect the difference between the return rates paid by emerging countries' government bonds and those offered by U.S. government securities, considered a safety benchmark. In 2023, Venezuela had the highest EMBIG, amounting to more than 21,422 points. Bolivia followed second, with an index of over 2,200. In the same period, the Latin American economies with the lowest sovereign risk was Uruguay and Chile, with EMBIG levels below 140 basis points.

Sovereign Bonds Market Outlook

According to our latest research, the global sovereign bonds market size reached USD 26.8 trillion in 2024, reflecting the continued dominance of government debt securities in global capital markets. The market is projected to grow at a CAGR of 6.1% from 2025 to 2033, with the total market size expected to reach USD 45.8 trillion by 2033. This expansion is being driven by robust demand from institutional investors, persistent fiscal deficits, and the need for governments to fund large-scale infrastructure and social programs. The growth of the sovereign bonds market is also underpinned by the increasing integration of emerging economies into the global financial system, alongside heightened risk aversion among investors seeking safe-haven assets.

One of the primary growth factors for the sovereign bonds market is the heightened demand for low-risk investment vehicles, particularly during periods of global economic uncertainty. Sovereign bonds, issued by national governments, are widely regarded as among the safest asset classes due to their backing by the full faith and credit of the issuing state. As central banks in major economies maintain accommodative monetary policies and investors seek to hedge against market volatility, allocations to sovereign bonds have increased significantly. Furthermore, regulatory requirements for financial institutions, such as Basel III liquidity coverage ratios, have compelled banks and insurers to hold substantial amounts of high-quality liquid assets, further reinforcing demand for government securities.

Another critical driver is the substantial fiscal stimulus measures enacted by governments worldwide in response to economic disruptions, such as the COVID-19 pandemic and ongoing geopolitical tensions. These measures have led to a surge in sovereign debt issuance, as countries seek to finance stimulus packages, healthcare expenditures, and economic recovery programs. The sovereign bonds market has therefore become a vital conduit for channeling capital from global investors into public sector projects, supporting both economic stability and long-term development. Moreover, the growing prominence of green and social bonds within sovereign issuance programs reflects an increasing alignment between public finance and sustainable development objectives, broadening the market’s appeal to ESG-focused investors.

The sovereign bonds market also benefits from technological advancements and financial innovation, which have enhanced market transparency, accessibility, and efficiency. The digitalization of bond issuance and trading platforms has enabled a broader spectrum of investors, including retail participants, to access sovereign debt markets. Additionally, the adoption of electronic book-building processes and blockchain-based settlement systems has streamlined primary and secondary market operations, reducing transaction costs and settlement risks. These innovations are fostering greater market participation and liquidity, thereby strengthening the overall resilience and attractiveness of sovereign bonds as a core asset class.

Regionally, the sovereign bonds market exhibits considerable diversity in terms of issuance volumes, investor bases, and yield dynamics. North America and Europe remain the largest markets, accounting for the majority of outstanding sovereign debt, driven by the United States, Germany, France, and the United Kingdom. However, the Asia Pacific region is witnessing the fastest growth, fueled by the rising fiscal needs of China, Japan, India, and Southeast Asian economies. Emerging markets in Latin America and the Middle East & Africa are also increasing their presence, albeit from a lower base, as they tap international capital markets to finance development initiatives. This regional diversification is contributing to a more balanced and resilient global sovereign bonds market.

Type Analysis

The sovereign bonds market is characterized by a wide array of bond types, each tailored to meet specific

In 2024, the gross government debt of China amounted to an estimated ** percent of the country's gross domestic product (GDP), compared to ** percent for Russia. For China, this was an increase over 2001 levels, when the gross government debt amounted to ** percent of the country's GDP. Russia, on the other hand, has reduced this figure from 2001 levels, when gross government debt was ** percent of the country's GDP.

Brazil is Latin America's largest economy based on annual gross domestic product. As of July 2024, Brazil's Emerging Markets Bond Index stood at 228 points, almost 29 points higher than at the same period one year earlier. This index is a weighted capitalization market benchmark that measures the financial returns obtained each day by a selected portfolio of government bonds from emerging countries.The EMBI+, more commonly known as "risco país" in Portuguese, is measured in base points. These show the difference between the return rates paid by emerging countries' government bonds and those offered by the U.S. Treasury. Based on Brazil's EMBI as of October 27, 2020, the annual return rates of Brazilian sovereign debt titles were estimated to be 315 index points higher than those offered by U.S. Treasury bills. This difference is known as "spread".

This replication package contains all Python Jupyter notebooks required to reproduce every table and figure in the paper Argentina: The Honor Student—By Merit and By Mistake. A Natural Experiment on “Information Effects”, including the Online Appendix. Each result is generated by its own notebook. A README accompanies the project as a whole, providing instructions and additional details.

Graph and download economic data for ICE BofA Emerging Markets Corporate Plus Index Total Return Index Value (BAMLEMCBPITRIV) from 1998-12-31 to 2025-12-01 about return, emerging markets, corporate, indexes, and USA.

The compiled database covers 60 years of recent financial history of 47 economies and is first to include the 2018 crisis in Turkey and the 2020 sovereign debt crisis in Argentina. It covers such variables as debt/gdp levels for different sectors of the economy (state, households, nonfinancial and financial sector), credit/gdp gap, residential property price statistics,

The paper is focused on early warning indicators of financial crises applicable to Russia. Using the stepwise regression approach the author identifies early warning indicators for banking and currency crises in advanced and emerging market economies. The proposed prediction model for banking crisis in Russia and emerging market economies includes credit gap and real residential property price index growth. The author explores the possibility of inclusion of residential property price index into the informational base for the countercyclical capital buffer estimation by the Bank of Russia. An analysis of currency crises indicates that private debt-to-service ratio contains useful information for prediction of currency crisis in Russia and emerging market economies.

Compiled data is based on statistics published by Bank for International Settlements, Institute for International Finance and Joint External Debt Hub.

Emerging markets face large and persistent fluctuations in sovereign spreads. To what extent are these fluctuations driven by local shocks versus financial conditions in advanced economies? To answer this question, we develop a neoclassical business cycle model of a world economy with an advanced country, the North, and many emerging market economies, the South. Northern households invest in domestic stocks, domestic defaultable bonds, and international sovereign debt. Over the 2008-2016 period, the global cycle phase, the North accounts for 68% of Southern spreads' fluctuations. Over the whole 1994-2024 period, however, Northern shocks account for less than 20% of these fluctuations.

We study the currency composition of sovereign debt in emerging economies through the lens of a model in which the government lacks commitment regarding debt and monetary policy. High levels of debt in local currency give rise to incentives to dilute debt repayment through currency depreciation. Governments tilt the currency composition of debt toward foreign currency to avoid inflationary costs and real exchange rate distortions, at the expense of forgoing the hedging properties of local currency debt. Our quantitative model is used to shed light on the recent dynamics of the currency composition of debt and on its cyclical behavior.

The coronavirus pandemic has revived interest in the effects of fiscal policy. This paper studies the effects of government spending on default risk in emerging economies. We first build a general equilibrium small open economy model where government spending shocks influence external debt and sovereign bond spreads. We show that external debt piles up and sovereign bond spreads increase following a government spending shock. We then develop VAR evidence based on a panel of 18 countries. We find that in response to a 10% government spending increase, (1) the real effective exchange rate appreciates by 1.0% and the current account to GDP ratio deteriorates by 0.0025 on impact; (2) external debt increases by an average of 3.5% in the year following the shock; and (3) the EMBI Global spread rises by an average of 25 basis points within two years and peaks at 132 basis points 14 quarters after the shock, suggesting a higher sovereign default risk. The empirical results confirm the theoretical predictions from the general equilibrium model.

Context

The Global Debt Database (GDD) is the outcome of an extensive investigative process initiated with the October 2016 Fiscal Monitor. This dataset encapsulates the total gross debt of the nonfinancial sector (both private and public) for an unbalanced panel of 190 advanced economies, emerging market economies, and low-income countries, with records dating back to 1950. The Global Debt Dataset aggregates information from diverse sources to offer a comprehensive view of both public and private debt metrics. It includes data on government debt, corporate debt, household debt, and external debt, enabling users to delve into trends, patterns, and interrelationships among different debt categories.

Content

The dataset furnishes crucial information for comprehending global debt trends. Key columns encompass the country name, inflation indicator type, and annual average debt percentages from 1950 to 2022. This dataset empowers researchers and policymakers for thorough analyses, allowing exploration of relationships between country-specific indicators and debt percentages. Through meticulous examination, users can unveil patterns in the financial landscapes of diverse economies over the past seven decades. This historical record stands as a valuable tool, providing insights into the complexities of global economic dynamics.

Dataset Structure:

This dataset (central_government_debt.csv) spanning from 1950 to 2022 comprises the following columns:

Additionally, there are four other datasets following the same data structure: general_government_debt.csv, household_debt.csv, non-financial_corporate_debt.csv, and private_debt.

Acknowledgment

The primary dataset was sourced from the International Monetary Fund. I extend sincere gratitude to the team for providing the core data used in this dataset.

Reference: Mbaye, S., Moreno-Badia, M., and K. Chae. 2018. “Global Debt Database: Methodology and Sources,” IMF Working Paper, International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC

© Image credit: Freepik

The dataset included with this article contains three files describing and defining the sample and variables for VAT impact, and Excel file 1 consists of all raw and filtered data for the variables for the panel data sample. Excel file 2 depicts time-series and cross-sectional data for nonfinancial firms listed on the Saudi market for the second and third quarters of 2019 and the third and fourth quarters of 2020. Excel file 3 presents the raw material of variables used in measuring the company's profitability of the panel data sample

Emerging market economies (aggregate) - Credit from All sectors to General government at Nominal value, Percentage of GDP (using PPP exchange rates), Adjusted for breaks

Contains data from the World Bank's data portal. There is also a consolidated country dataset on HDX.

Debt statistics provide a detailed picture of debt stocks and flows of developing countries. Data presented as part of the Quarterly External Debt Statistics takes a closer look at the external debt of high-income countries and emerging markets to enable a more complete understanding of global financial flows. The Quarterly Public Sector Debt database provides further data on public sector valuation methods, debt instruments, and clearly defined tiers of debt for central, state and local government, as well as extra-budgetary agencies and funds. Data are gathered from national statistical organizations and central banks as well as by various major multilateral institutions and World Bank staff.

Key information about New Zealand National Government Debt

• New Zealand National Government Debt reached 123.7 USD bn in Sep 2025, compared with 124.1 USD bn in the previous quarter.
• New Zealand National Government Debt data is updated quarterly, available from Dec 2006 to Sep 2025.
• The data reached an all-time high of 124.1 USD bn in Jun 2025 and a record low of 21.4 USD bn in Sep 2008.

• In the latest reports, New Zealand Consolidated Fiscal Balance recorded a deficit equal to 1.2 % of its Nominal GDP in Jun 2025.
• The country's Government debt accounted for 46.7 % of its Nominal GDP in Jun 2025.
• New Zealand Nominal GDP reached 65.7 USD bn in Jun 2025.

High-Yield Bonds Market Outlook

According to our latest research, the global high-yield bonds market size reached USD 2.34 trillion in 2024 and is projected to expand at a robust CAGR of 6.1% during the forecast period, surging to an estimated USD 3.98 trillion by 2033. This significant growth trajectory is primarily driven by a combination of persistent investor appetite for higher returns, ongoing accommodative monetary policies in key economies, and a dynamic corporate financing landscape that favors riskier debt instruments. The market continues to evolve rapidly as both institutional and retail investors seek to optimize their portfolios amid a fluctuating interest rate environment and heightened global economic uncertainty.

One of the most prominent growth factors propelling the high-yield bonds market is the persistent low-yield environment in traditional fixed-income assets, which has encouraged investors to pursue higher-risk, higher-return alternatives. Central banks across developed economies have maintained relatively low interest rates to spur economic recovery post-pandemic, inadvertently compressing yields on government and investment-grade corporate bonds. This scenario has funneled substantial capital into high-yield bonds, particularly from pension funds, insurance companies, and mutual funds seeking to enhance portfolio yields. Furthermore, the search for income in a low-rate world has expanded the investor base, drawing significant interest from both institutional and retail segments.

Another critical driver is the increasing trend of corporate refinancing and leveraged buyouts, especially in sectors undergoing transformation or consolidation. Companies with sub-investment grade ratings are leveraging favorable market conditions to refinance existing debt at lower costs or to support strategic acquisitions, fueling new issuances of high-yield bonds. The market has also witnessed a surge in innovative debt structures and covenant-lite deals, catering to the evolving risk appetite of investors. This dynamism is further accentuated by the rise of emerging market high-yield issuances, as sovereign and corporate entities in developing economies tap into global capital markets to fund growth and infrastructure projects.

Technological advancements and the proliferation of digital trading platforms have also played a pivotal role in shaping the high-yield bonds market. Enhanced access to market data, real-time pricing, and streamlined execution processes have democratized bond investing, making high-yield instruments more accessible to a broader spectrum of investors. Online platforms and fintech innovations have lowered transaction costs, improved transparency, and enabled retail investors to participate more actively in the market. This digital transformation is fostering greater liquidity and efficiency, thereby supporting the overall expansion of the high-yield bonds ecosystem.

Regionally, North America continues to dominate the high-yield bonds market, accounting for nearly 47% of global issuance in 2024. The United States, in particular, remains the epicenter of high-yield activity, driven by a mature capital market infrastructure, a deep pool of institutional investors, and a steady pipeline of corporate issuers. Europe and Asia Pacific are also emerging as significant contributors, with European issuances gaining momentum amid regulatory harmonization and Asia Pacific benefitting from robust economic growth and increasing financial market sophistication. Latin America and the Middle East & Africa are gradually expanding their market share, propelled by sovereign and corporate financing needs, though these regions still face structural and regulatory challenges that temper growth.

Type Analysis

The high-yield bonds market can be segmented by type into Corporate High-Yield Bonds, Sovereign High-Yield Bonds, Emerging Market High-Yield Bonds, and Others. Corporate high-yield bonds represent the largest share of the market, driven by a sustained ap

Graph and download economic data for ICE BofA Emerging Markets Corporate Plus Index Option-Adjusted Spread (BAMLEMCBPIOAS) from 1998-12-31 to 2025-12-01 about emerging markets, option-adjusted spread, corporate, indexes, and USA.

Callable Bonds Market Outlook

According to our latest research, the global callable bonds market size reached USD 2.21 trillion in 2024, reflecting robust activity across government, corporate, and municipal issuances. The market is poised for steady expansion, with a projected CAGR of 5.3% from 2025 to 2033. By the end of 2033, the callable bonds market is forecasted to attain a value of USD 3.51 trillion. This growth is primarily driven by increasing demand for flexible debt instruments in a dynamic interest rate environment, as issuers seek to optimize their capital structures and manage refinancing risks efficiently.

A key growth factor for the callable bonds market is the persistent volatility in global interest rates. As central banks continue to adjust monetary policies in response to inflationary pressures and macroeconomic uncertainties, both public and private sector issuers are increasingly favoring callable bonds. These instruments provide issuers with the strategic option to redeem debt early if interest rates decline, allowing for refinancing at lower costs. This flexibility is especially attractive in periods of economic uncertainty, where the ability to manage interest expenses and maintain liquidity is crucial. The growing sophistication of debt management strategies among governments and corporations further fuels the adoption of callable bonds worldwide.

Another significant driver is the rising participation of institutional investors in the callable bonds market. Asset managers, pension funds, and insurance companies are drawn to callable bonds for their relatively higher yields compared to non-callable alternatives, compensating for the embedded call risk. In addition, the expansion of emerging markets into global capital markets has led to increased callable bond issuances by sovereign and quasi-sovereign entities. This trend is amplified by advancements in technology and digital trading platforms, which enhance transparency and accessibility, making callable bonds more attractive to a broader investor base. The proliferation of online platforms is also enabling retail investors to participate more actively, further boosting market liquidity.

Regulatory reforms and evolving market practices are also shaping the trajectory of the callable bonds market. Enhanced disclosure requirements, improved pricing transparency, and the adoption of standardized documentation have contributed to greater investor confidence and market integrity. These regulatory developments, alongside the growing integration of environmental, social, and governance (ESG) criteria into bond issuance, are prompting issuers to innovate with callable structures that align with sustainable finance objectives. As a result, the market is witnessing a diversification of callable bond types and a broader range of issuers, which is expected to sustain growth over the long term.

From a regional perspective, North America continues to dominate the callable bonds market, accounting for the largest share of global issuances in 2024. This leadership is underpinned by the active participation of U.S. government agencies, corporates, and municipal entities, coupled with a highly developed financial infrastructure. Europe and Asia Pacific are also experiencing notable growth, driven by regulatory harmonization and increased cross-border capital flows. In contrast, Latin America and the Middle East & Africa are gradually expanding their presence, supported by economic reforms and infrastructure investments. Each region exhibits unique market dynamics, but the overarching trend points toward increasing globalization and diversification in callable bond offerings.

Type Analysis

The callable bonds market is segmented by type into traditional callable bonds, make-whole callable bonds, European callable bonds, Bermudan callable bonds, and others. Traditional callable bonds remain the most prevalent, offering issuers a straightforward mechanism to redeem bonds at predetermined call dates and prices. This type is favored for its simplicity and flexibility, particularly in markets where interest rates are expected to fluctuate. Traditional callable bonds provide issuers with the ability to refinance debt efficiently, while investors are compensated for call risk through higher yields. The enduring popularity of this segment is supported by well-established legal frameworks and market conventions, especially in North America and Europe.

The Fiscal Monitor surveys and analyzes the latest public finance developments, it updates fiscal implications of the crisis and medium-term fiscal projections, and assesses policies to put public finances on a sustainable footing.

Country-specific data and projections for key fiscal variables are based on the April 2020 World Economic Outlook database, unless indicated otherwise, and compiled by the IMF staff. Historical data and projections are based on information gathered by IMF country desk officers in the context of their missions and through their ongoing analysis of the evolving situation in each country; they are updated on a continual basis as more information becomes available. Structural breaks in data may be adjusted to produce smooth series through splicing and other techniques. IMF staff estimates serve as proxies when complete information is unavailable. As a result, Fiscal Monitor data can differ from official data in other sources, including the IMF's International Financial Statistics.

The country classification in the Fiscal Monitor divides the world into three major groups: 35 advanced economies, 40 emerging market and middle-income economies, and 40 low-income developing countries. The seven largest advanced economies as measured by GDP (Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, United Kingdom, United States) constitute the subgroup of major advanced economies, often referred to as the Group of Seven (G7). The members of the euro area are also distinguished as a subgroup. Composite data shown in the tables for the euro area cover the current members for all years, even though the membership has increased over time. Data for most European Union member countries have been revised following the adoption of the new European System of National and Regional Accounts (ESA 2010). The low-income developing countries (LIDCs) are countries that have per capita income levels below a certain threshold (currently set at $2,700 in 2016 as measured by the World Bank's Atlas method), structural features consistent with limited development and structural transformation, and external financial linkages insufficiently close to be widely seen as emerging market economies. Zimbabwe is included in the group. Emerging market and middle-income economies include those not classified as advanced economies or low-income developing countries. See Table A, "Economy Groupings," for more details.

Most fiscal data refer to the general government for advanced economies, while for emerging markets and developing economies, data often refer to the central government or budgetary central government only (for specific details, see Tables B-D). All fiscal data refer to the calendar years, except in the cases of Bangladesh, Egypt, Ethiopia, Haiti, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, India, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Singapore, and Thailand, for which they refer to the fiscal year.

Composite data for country groups are weighted averages of individual-country data, unless otherwise specified. Data are weighted by annual nominal GDP converted to U.S. dollars at average market exchange rates as a share of the group GDP.

In many countries, fiscal data follow the IMF's Government Finance Statistics Manual 2014. The overall fiscal balance refers to net lending (+) and borrowing ("") of the general government. In some cases, however, the overall balance refers to total revenue and grants minus total expenditure and net lending.

The fiscal gross and net debt data reported in the Fiscal Monitor are drawn from official data sources and IMF staff estimates. While attempts are made to align gross and net debt data with the definitions in the IMF's Government Finance Statistics Manual, as a result of data limitations or specific country circumstances, these data can sometimes deviate from the formal definitions.