This material is part of the free Environmental Performance in Construction (EPiC) Database. The EPiC Database contains embodied environmental flow coefficients for 250+ construction materials using a comprehensive hybrid life cycle inventory approach.Timber comes in a wide range of varieties and sizes. It is used for structural and non-structural purposes, and can vary significantly in density, grain texture, workability, usage and cost. It is lightweight, easy to handle and transport, and has a good strength to weight ratio. It is typically divided into softwood varieties, such as Pine, Cypress and Spruce and hardwood varieties such as Victorian Ash, Blackbutt and Oak. The term hardwood and softwood is a botanical distinction, and not an indication of timber strength or density. The density of timber is highly dependent on the species, varying from 120 kg/m³ to 1 300 kg/m³ or higher.Hardwood is generally more dense and durable than softwood varieties, with better longevity. Some hardwoods are naturally resistant to termites and pests and more fire resistant. It is commonly used for high traffic areas, quality furnishings and interior joinery, structural members, cladding and flooring. Commercial timber products are typically kiln, or air-dried. Kiln/oven drying is done in a controlled environment over a relatively short time period. It produces a uniformly dried, high quality product that generally kills any fungi and insects in the wood. Air-drying is done over extended periods of time, and does not require any fuel inputs. It is cost effective, but needs to be carefully managed to reduce cracking and ensure consistent drying.

This material is part of the free Environmental Performance in Construction (EPiC) Database. The EPiC Database contains embodied environmental flow coefficients for 250+ construction materials using a comprehensive hybrid life cycle inventory approach.Steel is a ferrous metal and is an alloy of iron and carbon, as well as potential other elements. It has a very high tensile strength. Steel has been used in the construction industry for over a century.The core material for making steel is iron, which is found in iron ore. Iron is extracted from iron ore in blast furnaces through the smelting process, while controlling for the content of carbon. The molten steel is usually further processed before being extruded into circular pipes.Steel pipes are often used in pile foundations, plumbing and as columns (usually filled with concrete).

This material is part of the free Environmental Performance in Construction (EPiC) Database. The EPiC Database contains embodied environmental flow coefficients for 250+ construction materials using a comprehensive hybrid life cycle inventory approach.Aluminium is a ductile non-ferrous metal. It is a lightweight metal with an average density of 2.7 t/m³. It is durable, corrosion resistant, a good reflector of both visible and infrared radiation, and highly recyclable. Aluminium alloys are used in the construction industry as raw aluminium typically lacks the strength required for most of its applications.Aluminium is extracted from bauxite, its common ore, through an extensive process. Bauxite is converted to aluminium oxide through the Bayer process. Aluminium oxide (or Alumina) is then converted to aluminium billets by the electricity-intensive Hall-Héroult process, made of 99% aluminium, which can be further purified if needed. Aluminium billets are then thermoformed into the relevant shape.Aluminium is commonly used as a construction material, notably as cladding, structural and window framing, and as a thermal reflector. Aluminium sheets or plates are used as the base material for aluminium cladding, gutters, and structural elements.

This material is part of the free Environmental Performance in Construction (EPiC) Database. The EPiC Database contains embodied environmental flow coefficients for 250+ construction materials using a comprehensive hybrid life cycle inventory approach.Gravel is a course aggregate, comprised of hard, durable and weather resistant rocks. It has excellent drainage properties, and is commonly used in construction. There are different sizes and grades of gravel available, ranging from small smooth rounded rock, to large angular crushed rock.Gravel is produced in quarries or extracted from gravel pits. It is found naturally, in the form of eroded rock and minerals, or created by crushing rock such as limestone, basalt or sandstone. It is commonly used for construction and landscaping purposes, including: as a base layer for walkways and roads, as bulk fill, as a drainage substrate, or as an aggregate for concrete.

This material is part of the free Environmental Performance in Construction (EPiC) Database. The EPiC Database contains embodied environmental flow coefficients for 250+ construction materials using a comprehensive hybrid life cycle inventory approach.Polypropylene (PP) is a thermoplastic polymer and second most produced plastic. It has similar properties to polyethylene (PE), including high impact strength and ductility, but is harder and more resistant to heat.PP is produced by polymerising chains of propylene monomers through different catalysts. Different catalysts can result in different PP properties. PP is then moulded or extruded. Different additives can enhance the properties of PP, e.g. antistatic, dust resistant, and colouring.PP is mostly used in construction as a membrane (including as a water vapour membrane).

This material is part of the free Environmental Performance in Construction (EPiC) Database. The EPiC Database contains embodied environmental flow coefficients for 250+ construction materials using a comprehensive hybrid life cycle inventory approach.Aluminium is a ductile non-ferrous metal. It is a lightweight metal with an average density of 2.7 t/m³. It is durable, corrosion resistant, a good reflector of both visible and infrared radiation, and highly recyclable. Aluminium alloys are used in the construction industry as raw aluminium typically lacks the strength required for most of its applications.Aluminium is extracted from bauxite, its common ore, through an extensive process. Bauxite is converted to aluminium oxide through the Bayer process. Aluminium oxide (or Alumina) is then converted to aluminium billets by the electricity-intensive Hall-Héroult process, made of 99% aluminium, which can be further purified if needed. Aluminium billets are then thermoformed into the relevant shape. Powder coating provides additional durability, custom colour and improved performance.Aluminium is commonly used as a construction material, notably as cladding, structural and window framing, and as a thermal reflector. Aluminium bars are typically extruded and can be used as a finishing product (flat bars) and as ventilation grilles.

This material is part of the free Environmental Performance in Construction (EPiC) Database. The EPiC Database contains embodied environmental flow coefficients for 250+ construction materials using a comprehensive hybrid life cycle inventory approach. Concrete is a composite material combining sand or other fine aggregates, coarse aggregates, a binder and water. Portland cement is the most commonly used binder, however other binders, such as polymers, may also be used. Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCM) such as Fly Ash and Ground, Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS), are also commonly used as a part replacement for Portland cement. Additives, such as plasticisers can be added to the mix to control concrete properties, such as workability. Concrete is usually combined with steel reinforcement to improve tensile strength. Concrete is one of the most commonly used construction materials. It is highly durable and is thus typically used for structural elements in buildings and infrastructure projects. Concrete can be manufactured to meet a variety of strength grades. Concrete 32 MPa is commonly used in commercial and civil construction, for structural piling, floor slabs, external walls, paths and roads, where increased durability, weather-resistance and load-bearing capacity are required.

This material is part of the free Environmental Performance in Construction (EPiC) Database. The EPiC Database contains embodied environmental flow coefficients for 250+ construction materials using a comprehensive hybrid life cycle inventory approach. Timber comes in a wide range of varieties and sizes. It is used for structural and non-structural purposes, and can vary significantly in density, grain texture, workability, usage and cost. It is lightweight, easy to handle and transport, and has a good strength to weight ratio. It is typically divided into softwood varieties, such as Pine, Cypress and Spruce and hardwood varieties such as Victorian Ash, Blackbutt and Oak. The term hardwood and softwood is a botanical distinction, and not an indication of timber strength or density. The density of timber is highly dependent on the species, varying from 120 kg/m³ to 1 300 kg/m³ or higher. Softwood generally has a lower density and better workability than hardwood varieties. It is comparably cheap due to the fast growing nature of many softwood plantation varieties. It is widely used for timber framing purposes, feature walls, door and windows. Commercial timber products are typically kiln, or air-dried. Kiln/oven drying is done in a controlled environment over a relatively short time period. It produces a uniformly dried, high quality product that generally kills any fungi and insects in the wood. Air-drying is done over extended periods of time, and does not require any fuel inputs. It is cost effective, but needs to be carefully managed to reduce cracking and ensure consistent drying.

This material is part of the free Environmental Performance in Construction (EPiC) Database. The EPiC Database contains embodied environmental flow coefficients for 250+ construction materials using a comprehensive hybrid life cycle inventory approach. Polycarbonate represents a family of thermoplastic polymers. Polycarbonate is a strong material and the grade used for construction is most often transparent. Polycarbonate has high mechanical strength and can withstand temperature fluctuations without cracking. Polycarbonate is made by mixing bisphenol A and phosgene through multiple chemical reactions. The resulting polycarbonate can be extruded or moulded, like other thermoplastics. Polycarbonate is mostly used in construction to replace glass in glazing, for skylights, flat or curved glazing and for sound walls.

This material is part of the free Environmental Performance in Construction (EPiC) Database. The EPiC Database contains embodied environmental flow coefficients for 250+ construction materials using a comprehensive hybrid life cycle inventory approach.Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) is a transparent thermoplastic that is light-weight has a good tensile strength, flexural strength and UV tolerance. It is commonly known as plexiglass, acrylic or acrylic glass.PMMA is made by polymerising monomers of methyl-methacrylate. It is moulded or extruded into its final shape, which is often flat sheets. Common additives include acrylate monomers for heat processing, butyl acrylate for impact strength, dyes for colouring and ultraviolet resistance and fillers to reduce cost.PMMA is most often used in construction as a substitute to glass.

This material is part of the free Environmental Performance in Construction (EPiC) Database. The EPiC Database contains embodied environmental flow coefficients for 250+ construction materials using a comprehensive hybrid life cycle inventory approach.Concrete is a composite material combining sand or other fine aggregates, coarse aggregates, a binder and water. Portland cement is the most commonly used binder, however other binders, such as polymers, may also be used. Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCM) such as Fly Ash and Ground, Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS), are also commonly used as a part replacement for Portland cement. Additives, such as plasticisers can be added to the mix to control concrete properties, such as workability. Concrete is usually combined with steel reinforcement to improve tensile strength.Concrete is one of the most commonly used construction materials. It is highly durable and is thus typically used for structural elements in buildings and infrastructure projects. Concrete can be manufactured to meet a variety of strength grades. Concrete 25 MPa is commonly used in domestic and commercial floor construction and is considered to be a multi-purpose concrete mix. The typical mix ratio is 1:1:2 (cement, sand, coarse aggregate).

This material is part of the free Environmental Performance in Construction (EPiC) Database. The EPiC Database contains embodied environmental flow coefficients for 250+ construction materials using a comprehensive hybrid life cycle inventory approach.Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) is a thermoplastic with high mechanical strength. It is tough, resistant to impacts, offers a good surface quality and is a good electrical insulator.ABS is derived from three polymers, namely acrylonitrile, butadiene and styrene, mostly through emulsion. It can be moulded or extruded.ABS is generally used for pipes and fittings and sometimes for general purpose panels within the construction industry.

EPIC is an internet based payroll/personnel database entry, processing, correction, and inquiry application of the National Finance Center (NFC). Payroll and Personnel Actions are entered for processing by the National Finance Center

This material is part of the free Environmental Performance in Construction (EPiC) Database. The EPiC Database contains embodied environmental flow coefficients for 250+ construction materials using a comprehensive hybrid life cycle inventory approach.

The global medical database software market is experiencing robust growth, driven by the increasing adoption of electronic health records (EHRs) and health information management (HIM) systems across healthcare providers. The market size in 2025 is estimated at $15 billion, exhibiting a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 12% from 2025 to 2033. This significant expansion is fueled by several key factors. The rising prevalence of chronic diseases necessitates efficient data management for better patient care and research. Furthermore, government initiatives promoting digital healthcare and interoperability are accelerating the adoption of these systems. The shift towards value-based care models requires sophisticated data analytics capabilities offered by medical database software, further boosting market demand. Technological advancements, such as cloud-based solutions and artificial intelligence (AI) integration, are enhancing data security, accessibility, and analytical capabilities, driving market growth. The market segmentation reveals strong growth across both EHR and HIM systems, with EHR systems currently dominating due to broader adoption. Major players like NextGen Healthcare, Epic (implied based on industry knowledge), and Cerner (implied based on industry knowledge) are actively innovating and expanding their market share through strategic partnerships and acquisitions. Regional analysis shows North America currently holding the largest market share, followed by Europe and Asia Pacific, with emerging markets in Asia Pacific expected to demonstrate rapid growth in the coming years. The market is not without its challenges. Data security and privacy concerns remain a significant restraint, necessitating robust security measures and compliance with regulations like HIPAA. High implementation and maintenance costs can hinder adoption, especially for smaller healthcare providers. Integration complexities with existing legacy systems can also pose a challenge. However, the long-term benefits of improved patient care, enhanced operational efficiency, and valuable data-driven insights are likely to outweigh these challenges, ensuring continued market expansion throughout the forecast period. The market is expected to reach approximately $45 billion by 2033, driven by ongoing technological advancements, increasing regulatory pressures for digital health adoption, and a growing need for efficient and secure healthcare data management.

This material is part of the free Environmental Performance in Construction (EPiC) Database. The EPiC Database contains embodied environmental flow coefficients for 250+ construction materials using a comprehensive hybrid life cycle inventory approach. Steel is a ferrous metal and is an alloy of iron and carbon, as well as potential other elements. It has a very high tensile strength. Steel has been used in the construction industry for over a century. Stainless steel is extremely resistant to corrosion. The core material for making steel is iron, which is found in iron ore. Iron is extracted from iron ore in blast furnaces through the smelting process, while controlling for the content of carbon. To render the steel stainless, chromium is needed and is typically added as stainless steel scraps. The molten steel is usually further processed before being cast for its final use. Steel is commonly used in the construction industry, mainly as a structural material. Stainless steel sheets are used to produce a range of finishing materials, such as high durability cladding, roofing (mainly for airports), and kitchen surfaces.

This material is part of the free Environmental Performance in Construction (EPiC) Database. The EPiC Database contains embodied environmental flow coefficients for 250+ construction materials using a comprehensive hybrid life cycle inventory approach.Clay roof tiles, also known as terracotta tiles are a common roofing option. They are durable, weather resistant, fire resistant, and have a high thermal mass compared with other roofing materials. Tiles are interlocking, to ensure a consistent weatherproof roof covering, and require ongoing maintenance to ensure they remain weatherproof. Tiles can be brittle, and crack easily if not handled/treated correctly. The manufacturing process for clay tiles is similar to the production of other ceramic products. Clay is prepared and mixed to ensure consistent particle size and mineral content. The clay is then moulded or extruded into tile shaped elements. These are dried in a temperature and humidity controlled environment, and fired in a high temperature oven/kiln. Coatings or glazing can be applied to ensure the tiles are waterproof, or provide other construction or aesthetic qualities. The colour of the tile largely depends on the mineral content of the clay, the final firing temperature, or the coating/glazing applied. Clay roof tiles are available in a wide range of shapes and sizes, including specific regional styles which are influenced by roof pitch, weather conditions, availability of raw materials and aesthetic qualities.

This material is part of the free Environmental Performance in Construction (EPiC) Database. The EPiC Database contains embodied environmental flow coefficients for 250+ construction materials using a comprehensive hybrid life cycle inventory approach.Copper is a soft and malleable non-ferrous metal and has been used in construction for hundreds of years. It has high thermal and electric conduction properties.Copper is made by crushing mined copper ores and flash smelting them. The resulting copper sulphite is further heated with oxygen to obtain copper oxide. The latter is heated to obtain blister copper, which is used to cast anodes that are turned into pure copper cathodes through electroplating.Copper has multiple uses in construction. Copper sheets are often used to manufacture roofing, cladding, gutters, antimicrobial finished surfaces and others.

This zip file contains the underlying data used to create all tables and figures within the manuscript. This dataset is associated with the following publication: Iiames, J., E. Cooter, D. Pilant, and Y. Shao. Comparison of EPIC-simulated and MODIS-derived Leaf Area Index (LAI) across multiple spatial scales. Remote Sensing. MDPI AG, Basel, SWITZERLAND, 12(17): 2764, (2020).

The EPiC database is an authorative source of hybrid embodied environmental flows coefficients for construction materials in Australia. It contains data for embodied energy, greenhouse gas emissions and water for more than 100 construction materials.