International currencies play important roles as foreign exchange reserves but are also most frequently used to denominate corporate and government bonds, bank loans, and import and export invoices. These currencies offer unrivaled liquidity, constituting large shares of the volume on global foreign exchange markets, and are commonly chosen as the anchors targeted by countries with pegged or managed exchange rate regimes. We provide evidence suggesting a recent rise in the use of the dollar, and fall of the use of the euro, with similar patterns manifesting across all these aspects of international currency use.

Foreign Exchange Reserves In the Euro Area decreased to 99.05 USD Billion in June from 101.68 USD Billion in May of 2025. This dataset provides - Euro Area Foreign Exchange Reserves - actual values, historical data, forecast, chart, statistics, economic calendar and news.

In 2024, the Eurozone experienced a significant surge in its monetary gold reserves, which reached an impressive peak of over 869 billion euros. This notable growth represents the largest increase in gold reserves recorded during the period, highlighting a strong shift in the region’s financial strategy. The sharp rise may be attributed to various economic factors, including heightened demand for safe-haven assets, fluctuations in global markets, and efforts by central banks to diversify their reserves.

Foreign Exchange Reserves in China increased to 3317000 USD Million in June from 3285000 USD Million in May of 2025. This dataset provides - China Foreign Exchange Reserves - actual values, historical data, forecast, chart, statistics, economic calendar and news.

Graph and download economic data for Central Bank Assets for Euro Area (11-19 Countries) (ECBASSETSW) from 1999-01-01 to 2025-07-25 about central bank, Euro Area, Europe, assets, banks, and depository institutions.

In June 2024, the European Central Bank (ECB) began reducing its fixed interest rate for the first time since 2016, implementing a series of cuts. The rate decreased from 4.5 percent to 3.15 percent by year-end: a 0.25 percentage point cut in June, followed by additional reductions in September, October, and December. The central bank implemented other cuts in early 2025, setting the rate at 2.4 percent in April 2025. This marked a significant shift from the previous rate hike cycle, which began in July 2022 when the ECB raised rates to 0.5 percent and subsequently increased them almost monthly, reaching 4.5 percent by December 2023 - the highest level since the 2007-2008 global financial crisis. How does this ensure liquidity? Banks typically hold only a fraction of their capital in cash, measured by metrics like the Tier 1 capital ratio. Since this ratio is low, banks prefer to allocate most of their capital to revenue-generating loans. When their cash reserves fall too low, banks borrow from the ECB to cover short-term liquidity needs. On the other hand, commercial banks can also deposit excess funds with the ECB at a lower interest rate. Reasons for fluctuations
The ECB’s primary mandate is to maintain price stability. The Euro area inflation rate is, in theory, the key indicator guiding the ECB's actions. When the fixed interest rate is lower, commercial banks are more likely to borrow from the ECB, increasing the money supply and, in turn, driving inflation higher. When inflation rises, the ECB increases the fixed interest rate, which slows borrowing and helps to reduce inflation.

The benchmark interest rate In the Euro Area was last recorded at 2.15 percent. This dataset provides - Euro Area Interest Rate - actual values, historical data, forecast, chart, statistics, economic calendar and news.

European Union central banks navigated a complex economic landscape between 2022 and 2025, with interest rates initially rising across member states. However, a pivotal shift occurred in late 2023 as most countries began lowering their rates, reflecting the delicate balance between controlling inflation and supporting economic growth. In the Euro area, the European Central Bank (ECB) led this trend by cutting interest rates from 4.5 percent to 3.15 percent in 2024, implementing four strategic rate reductions throughout the year. This approach was nearly universally adopted, with Poland being the sole EU country not reducing its rates during this period. The ECB continued the series of reductions in early 2025, setting the rate at 2.4 percent in April 2025. Global context and policy shifts The interest rate changes in the EU mirror similar movements in other major economies. The United States, United Kingdom, and European Union central banks followed remarkably similar patterns from 2003 to 2024, responding to shared global economic conditions. After maintaining near-zero rates following the 2008 financial crisis and the COVID-19 pandemic, these institutions sharply raised rates in 2022 to combat surging inflation. By mid-2024, the European Central Bank and Bank of England initiated rate cuts, with the Federal Reserve following suit. Varied approaches within the EU Despite the overall trend, individual EU countries have adopted diverse strategies. Hungary, for instance, set the highest rate in the EU at 13 percent in September 2023, gradually reducing it to 6.5 percent by September 2024. In contrast, Sweden implemented the most aggressive cuts, lowering its rate to 2.25 percent by February 2025, the lowest among EU members. These divergent approaches highlight the unique economic challenges faced by each country and the flexibility required in monetary policy to address specific national circumstances.

Foreign Exchange Reserves in India decreased to 695490 USD Million in July 18 from 696670 USD Million in the previous week. This dataset provides the latest reported value for - India Foreign Exchange Reserves - plus previous releases, historical high and low, short-term forecast and long-term prediction, economic calendar, survey consensus and news.

The pound to euro history reveals that exchange rates in 2022 were not as low as they were during 2008 or since the Brexit referendum. Since the United Kingdom (UK) held a referendum on its European Union membership in June 2016, the British pound (GBP) weakened against the euro. From a high of 1.43 at the end of November 2015, the GBP to EUR exchange rate has remained below 1.2 since July 2016, sitting at 1.11 as of October 2020. By July 29, 2025, values had reached 1.15 euros per pound. The euro to pound exchange rate can be found on a different page.Hitting UK citizens' pocketsIt is not just European holidaymakers that are hit when the British pound to Euro exchange rate falls. The average UK consumer also feels the pinch as inflation rates often rise to cover the shortfall of the pound. When the inflation rate rises, the price of imported goods goes up and the consumer ends up paying more. GBP to U.S. dollarSince 2016's referendum, the British pound (GBP) fell across the exchange. The GBP's fall against the Euro was also reflected against the U.S. dollar where the exchange rate in May 2016 (pre-referendum) of 1.46 dollars to the pound has fallen significantly.

In May 2025, global inflation rates and central bank interest rates showed significant variation across major economies. Most economies initiated interest rate cuts from mid-2024 due to declining inflationary pressures. The U.S., UK, and EU central banks followed a consistent pattern of regular rate reductions throughout late 2024. In early 2025, Russia maintained the highest interest rate at 20 percent, while Japan retained the lowest at 0.5 percent. Varied inflation rates across major economies The inflation landscape varies considerably among major economies. China had the lowest inflation rate at -0.1 percent in May 2025. In contrast, Russia maintained a high inflation rate of 9.9 percent. These figures align with broader trends observed in early 2025, where China had the lowest inflation rate among major developed and emerging economies, while Russia's rate remained the highest. Central bank responses and economic indicators Central banks globally implemented aggressive rate hikes throughout 2022-23 to combat inflation. The European Central Bank exemplified this trend, raising rates from 0 percent in January 2022 to 4.5 percent by September 2023. A coordinated shift among major central banks began in mid-2024, with the ECB, Bank of England, and Federal Reserve initiating rate cuts, with forecasts suggesting further cuts through 2025 and 2026.

Europe’s libraries, museums and cultural activities are broad, vibrant and diverse, playing a significant role in the socio-economic development of the region. The industry helps to support thousands of jobs, fosters cultural exchange, promotes tourism and preserves the continent’s rich heritage. Heightened consumer interest in cultural experiences and sturdy tourism across Europe have supported industry demand. However, the COVID-19 outbreak severely disrupted operations, decimating revenue. The industry is still recovering from the repercussions of this. As a result, industry revenue is expected to contract at a compound annual rate of 6.8% to €52.8 billion over the five years through 2024, including an estimated 2.2% hike in the current year. European countries like France, the UK, Italy, Spain and Germany lead this industry because of their rich heritage. Mega-institutions like France’s Louvre and the UK’s British Museum bring hefty yearly visitor numbers. Thanks to valuable technology advancements, consumers can now experience European culture from anywhere, anytime. The COVID-19 pandemic kicked this trend into high gear, with digital offerings helping to limit the revenue decline from reduced physical visitor numbers. Nevertheless, revenue fell significantly due to prolonged COVID-19 restrictions, including temporary closures and travel bans. The removal of restrictions and rebound in tourism, alongside strong consumer demand for cultural experiences, has fuelled a rebound in revenue since 2021. However, economic headwinds, including severe inflation, have constrained revenue as consumers become more cautious with their spending. Meanwhile, intense competition and rising operating costs have squeezed profitability. The industry's future is geared towards a blend of digital and physical experiences, enhancing the accessibility of cultural resources. Advances in technology will revolutionise exhibits and engagement methods. Using tech like VR will attract a younger crowd, providing immersive experiences that enhance learning. Sustainability will be a major focus, with energy-efficient practices becoming standard industry-wide. There will also be a push for greater diversity and inclusivity, with exhibits exploring global cultures and minority histories and partnerships with global counterparts amplifying cultural exchange. Revenue is forecast to swell at a compound annual rate of 2.9% to €60.9 billion over the five years through 2029.

From 2003 to 2025, the central banks of the United States, United Kingdom, and European Union exhibited remarkably similar interest rate patterns, reflecting shared global economic conditions. In the early 2000s, rates were initially low to stimulate growth, then increased as economies showed signs of overheating prior to 2008. The financial crisis that year prompted sharp rate cuts to near-zero levels, which persisted for an extended period to support economic recovery. The COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 led to further rate reductions to historic lows, aiming to mitigate economic fallout. However, surging inflation in 2022 triggered a dramatic policy shift, with the Federal Reserve, Bank of England, and European Central Bank significantly raising rates to curb price pressures. As inflation stabilized in late 2023 and early 2024, the ECB and Bank of England initiated rate cuts by mid-2024, and the Federal Reserve also implemented its first cut in three years, with forecasts suggesting a gradual decrease in all major interest rates between 2025 and 2026. Divergent approaches within the European Union While the ECB sets a benchmark rate for the Eurozone, individual EU countries have adopted diverse strategies to address their unique economic circumstances. For instance, Hungary set the highest rate in the EU at 13 percent in September 2023, gradually reducing it to 6.5 percent by October 2024. In contrast, Sweden implemented more aggressive cuts, lowering its rate to 2.25 percent by February 2025, the lowest among EU members. These variations highlight the complex economic landscape that European central banks must navigate, balancing inflation control with economic growth support. Global context and future outlook The interest rate changes in major economies have had far-reaching effects on global financial markets. Government bond yields, for example, reflect these policy shifts and investor sentiment. As of December 2024, the United States had the highest 10-year government bond yield among developed economies at 4.59 percent, while Switzerland had the lowest at 0.27 percent. These rates serve as important benchmarks for borrowing costs and economic expectations worldwide.

Gold Metals Market Outlook

The global gold metals market size was valued at approximately USD 245 billion in 2023 and is projected to reach USD 370 billion by 2032, growing at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 4.5%. This growth trajectory is driven by several key factors, including increasing demand for gold as a safe-haven investment, the rising purchasing power in emerging economies, and the diversification of gold's applications across various industrial sectors. Gold's intrinsic properties, such as its malleability, conductivity, and corrosion resistance, make it indispensable not only for jewelry and adornment but also for a wide array of industrial applications. These multifaceted utilities continue to fuel the market's expansion across the globe.

One of the primary growth factors in the gold metals market is the continued perception of gold as a hedge against inflation and economic uncertainty. In times of economic instability or geopolitical tensions, investors flock to gold as a reliable store of value, driving up demand and prices. This sentiment has been particularly evident in the last few years, which have seen significant economic fluctuations worldwide. Furthermore, central banks around the world have been increasing their gold reserves as a means of diversifying their foreign exchange holdings, which further propels the demand in the market. As economies continue to navigate through post-pandemic recoveries alongside potential recessions, gold's allure as a financial safeguard remains robust.

Moreover, the cultural and traditional significance of gold in many regions, particularly in Asia-Pacific, remains a significant growth factor. In countries like India and China, gold is not just a commodity but a vital part of cultural practices, symbolizing wealth and prosperity. The demand for gold jewelry spikes during festivals and wedding seasons, contributing to sustained market growth. As the middle class in these regions continues to expand, their purchasing power also increases, leading to a higher consumption of gold for both personal use and investment purposes. Thus, cultural factors coupled with economic growth in emerging markets are substantial contributors to the overall expansion of the gold market.

Technological advancements and innovations in mining and refining processes have also played a crucial role in market growth. The development of more efficient extraction and processing techniques has increased the supply of gold, catering to the rising demand. Additionally, technological progress in electronics has expanded the application range of gold, especially with the miniaturization of electronic components, where gold's conductive properties are exceptionally valuable. This diversification into new applications, alongside traditional uses, is amplifying the demand for gold across various sectors.

From a regional perspective, the Asia Pacific region is the dominant player in the global gold market, accounting for a substantial portion of the total market share. This dominance is due to the significant consumption of gold in countries like China and India. North America also represents a considerable market share, driven by robust investment in gold and stable industrial demand. Meanwhile, Europe and the Middle East & Africa exhibit moderate growth, with investment and jewelry applications serving as key drivers. Each of these regions presents unique market dynamics, yet all contribute to the overarching growth trends observed in the global gold market.

Product Type Analysis

Bullion dominates the product type segment in the gold metals market, characterized by its pure form and high investment value. Investors ranging from individuals to large hedge funds favor bullion due to its direct correlation with gold prices and its ease of storage and transportation. Bullion is often seen as a primary means of storing wealth, particularly in times of economic uncertainty. The market for bullion is further driven by the increasing trend of central banks diversifying their reserves with gold purchases, enhancing its demand on a global scale. Furthermore, the online trading of bullion has gained traction, simplifying access for retail investors worldwide.

The coins segment, while smaller than bullion, holds significant importance due to its dual appeal as both an investment and a collectible. Gold coins often carry historical significance or aesthetic value, attracting collectors and investors alike. The market for coins is particularly strong in regions where gold ownership is culturally ingrained, such as in Asia-Pa

The U.S. federal funds rate peaked in 2023 at its highest level since the 2007-08 financial crisis, reaching 5.33 percent by December 2023. A significant shift in monetary policy occurred in the second half of 2024, with the Federal Reserve implementing regular rate cuts. By December 2024, the rate had declined to 4.48 percent. What is a central bank rate? The federal funds rate determines the cost of overnight borrowing between banks, allowing them to maintain necessary cash reserves and ensure financial system liquidity. When this rate rises, banks become more inclined to hold rather than lend money, reducing the money supply. While this decreased lending slows economic activity, it helps control inflation by limiting the circulation of money in the economy. Historic perspective The federal funds rate historically follows cyclical patterns, falling during recessions and gradually rising during economic recoveries. Some central banks, notably the European Central Bank, went beyond traditional monetary policy by implementing both aggressive asset purchases and negative interest rates.

Natural gas reserves in Africa totaled over ***** trillion standard cubic meters in 2023. Nigeria housed the largest reserves in the continent, around **** trillion standard cubic meters – equivalent to roughly three percent of the proved global natural gas reserves. In addition, North Africa accounted for nearly half of the continent’s total gas reserves, with Algeria concentrating the highest amount, some *** trillion standard cubic meters. As natural gas demand increases worldwide, Africa and its resource-richness may play an increasing role in the supply chain. Gas production on the rise Natural gas reserves in Africa will last around another 55.7 years before being depleted, considering that the present level of production is maintained. In 2023, the continent generated *** billion cubic meters of natural gas. This represented a growth of more than ** percent in the output level in comparison to 2000. Currently, Algeria is the main natural gas producer in Africa, followed by Egypt and Nigeria, respectively. Naturally, the countries are also the continent’s leading gas exporters. Africa’s potential as an international supplier As of 2023, Africa’s natural gas exports amounted to over ***** billion standard cubic meters, with Algeria, Egypt, and Nigeria as major exporters, as previously mentioned. Most of the African gas exports arrive in Europe, which absorbed ** percent of the gas exported from Africa in 2019, via pipelines or as LNG. Algeria’s gas exports, for instance, were destined almost entirely for Italy and Spain. The geographical proximity to Europe makes the Northern African country a strategic supplier – although stagnating production levels and lack of infrastructure may impose challenges for increasing the trade level.

In 2024, Europe imported more oil and its products than any other region across the globe, at roughly ************ barrels per day. China followed closely as the second-largest importer, with ************ daily barrels. Chinese demand on the rise China has become the second largest oil consumer in the world, ranking only behind the U.S. However, while the latter saw its oil production more than ****** in the past decade, oil production in China has remained more or less stable in the period, with an average output of ************ barrels per day. In contrast, China's oil consumption has about ******* since the beginning of the century, with demand registering a year-over-year growth of almost *** percent in 2020, despite the coronavirus pandemic. Oil movement between Europe and Russia The European Economic Area, as well as Eastern European countries, also account for a high level of imports, as Russia is a major producer and exporter of oil, home to the largest proved oil reserves in Europe and Eurasia. Outside of Russia and former Soviet Union (FSU) countries, Norway and the United Kingdom are the only two European nations with significant oil production, yet still only a fraction of Russia’s. Nevertheless, the share of petroleum oil imported to the European Union from Russia has slowly declined in the past decade, to just below *** percent in the first quarter of 2024.