The mortality rate from influenza in the United States is by far highest among those aged 65 years and older. During the 2023-2024 flu season, the mortality rate from influenza for this age group was around 32.1 per 100,000 population. The burden of influenza The impact of influenza in the U.S. varies from season to season, but in the 2023-2024 flu season, there were an estimated 40 million cases. These cases resulted in around 470,000 hospitalizations. Although most people recover from influenza without requiring medical treatment, the disease can be deadly for young children, the elderly, and those with weakened immune systems or chronic illnesses. During the 2023-2024 flu season, around 28,000 people in the U.S. lost their lives due to influenza. Impact of vaccinations The most effective way to prevent influenza is to receive an annual vaccination at the beginning of flu season. Flu vaccines are safe and can greatly reduce the burden of the disease. During the 2022-2023 flu season, vaccinations prevented around 2,479 deaths among those aged 65 years and older. Although flu vaccines are usually cheap and easily accessible, every year a large share of the population in the U.S. still does not get vaccinated. For example, during the 2022-2023 flu season, only about 35 percent of those aged 18 to 49 years received a flu vaccination.

The burden of influenza in the United States can vary from year to year depending on which viruses are circulating, how many people receive an influenza vaccination, and how effective the vaccination is in that particular year. During the 2023-2024 flu season, around 28,000 people lost their lives to the disease. Although most people recover from influenza without needing medical care, the disease can be deadly among young children, the elderly, and those with weakened immune systems or chronic illnesses. Deaths due to influenza Even though most people recover from influenza without medical care, influenza and pneumonia can be deadly, especially for older people and those with certain preexisting conditions. Influenza is a common cause of pneumonia and although most cases of influenza do not develop into pneumonia, those that do are often more severe and more deadly. Deaths due to influenza are most common among the elderly, with a mortality rate of around 32 per 100,000 population during the 2023-2024 flu season. In comparison, the mortality rate for those aged 50 to 64 years was 9.1 per 100,000 population. Flu vaccinations The most effective way to prevent influenza is to receive an annual influenza vaccination. These vaccines have proven to be safe and are usually cheap and easily accessible. Nevertheless, every year a large share of the population in the United States still fails to get vaccinated against influenza. For example, in the 2022-2023 flu season, only 35 percent of those aged 18 to 49 years received a flu vaccination. Unsurprisingly, children and the elderly are the most likely to get vaccinated. It is estimated that during the 2022-2023 flu season, vaccinations prevented over 929 thousand influenza cases among children aged 6 months to 4 years.

Avian influenza viruses (AIV) are a continued threat to global health and economy. Unlike other highly pathogenic AIV, novel H5N8 disseminated very quickly from Korea to other areas in Asia, Europe, and even North America following its first outbreak in 2014. However, the pathobiological features of the virus that favored its global translocation remain unknown. In this study, we used a compartmental model to examine the avian epidemiological characteristics that would support the geographic spread of influenza by bird migration, and to provide recommendations for AIV surveillance in wild bird populations. We simulated virus transmission and translocation in a migratory bird population while varying four system properties: 1) contact transmission rate; 2) infection recovery rate; 3) mortality rate induced by infection; and 4) migratory recovery rate. Using these simulations, we then calculated extinction and translocation probabilities for influenza during spring migration as a function of the altered properties. We find that lower infection recovery rates increase the likelihood of AIV translocation in migratory bird populations. In addition, lower mortality rates or migration recovery rates also favor translocation. Our results identify pathobiological features supporting AIV intercontinental dissemination risk and suggest that characteristic differences exist among H5N8 and other AIV subtypes that have not translocated as rapidly (e.g. H5N6 and H5N1).

Smoking is a leading preventable cause of chronic diseases like circulatory disease, cancer, and chronic lung conditions, worsening outcomes in acute illnesses. Despite reductions from public health campaigns, 13-16% of the UK population still smoke, with higher rates in hospital admissions. Smoking-related admissions cost over £870,000 annually, prompting a focus on smoking cessation, particularly in secondary care, where targeted interventions are effective. Influenza often leads to severe complications in hospitals, such as ICU admission and death, especially in older adults and those with chronic respiratory conditions. Smoking increases risks of mortality and ICU admission in influenza cases, but UK-specific data, especially on seasonal influenza, is limited. Updated data on high-risk groups, including smokers, is crucial to guide interventions. This dataset of 26,047 admissions between Jan 2018 and Jul 2024 with influenza, includes demography, serial physiology, assessments, diagnostic codes (ICD-10 & SNOMED-CT), initial presentation, ventilation, ICU transfers, prescriptions and outcomes. Geography: The West Midlands (WM) has a population of 6 million & includes a diverse ethnic & socio-economic mix. UHB is one of the largest NHS Trusts in England, providing direct acute services & specialist care across four hospital sites, with 2.2 million patient episodes per year, 2750 beds & > 120 ITU bed capacity. UHB runs a fully electronic healthcare record (EHR) (PICS; Birmingham Systems), a shared primary & secondary care record (Your Care Connected) & a patient portal “My Health”. Data set availability: Data access is available via the PIONEER Hub for projects which will benefit the public or patients. This can be by developing a new understanding of disease, by providing insights into how to improve care, or by developing new models, tools, treatments, or care processes. Data access can be provided to NHS, academic, commercial, policy and third sector organisations. Applications from SMEs are welcome. There is a single data access process, with public oversight provided by our public review committee, the Data Trust Committee. Contact pioneer@uhb.nhs.uk or visit www.pioneerdatahub.co.uk for more details. Available supplementary data: Matched controls; ambulance and community data. Unstructured data (images). We can provide the dataset in OMOP and other common data models and can build synthetic data to meet bespoke requirements. Available supplementary support: Analytics, model build, validation & refinement; A.I. support. Data partner support for ETL (extract, transform & load) processes. Bespoke and “off the shelf” Trusted Research Environment (TRE) build and run. Consultancy with clinical, patient & end-user and purchaser access/ support. Support for regulatory requirements. Cohort discovery. Data-driven trials and “fast screen” services to assess population size.

The incubation and infection recovery rates for influenza and RSV [36].

"FluWatch is Canada's national surveillance system that monitors the spread of flu and flu-like illnesses on an on-going basis. The FluWatch program consists of a network of labs, hospitals, doctor's offices and provincial and territorial ministries of health. Program objectives include to: • Detect flu outbreaks across the country as early as possible • Provide timely up-to-date information on flu activity in Canada and abroad to health professionals [and interested Canadians] • Monitor circulating strains of the flu virus (like H1N1) and assess their sensitivity to antiviral medications, [such as Tamiflu and Relenza]. Antivirals, when used by doctors to treat flu, can help reduce the severity of the illness and the recovery time for a patient • Provide information that the World Health Organization can use to make its recommendations on the best vaccine to use for seasonal flu shots."

BackgroundXiao’er Fengre Qing Oral Liquid (XFQOL) is developed based on the classical traditional Chinese medicinal formula Yinqiao Powder. Compared to the original formulation, XFQOL exhibits enhanced heat-clearing, detoxification, and fever reduction, which can effectively address the common complications associated with influenza in children and is well-suited for pediatric use. However, there is currently a lack of high-quality evidence from clinical trials to support its efficacy and safety in clinical applications.ObjectiveThis study aimed to investigate the efficacy and safety of XFQOL compared with Oseltamivir in pediatric influenza.MethodsA multicenter, block-randomized, double-blind, double-dummy, positive-drug-controlled, non-Inferiority clinical trial design was conducted. The study plans to enroll 420 pediatric participants, with 210 in each group. The experimental group will receive XFQOL with an Oseltamivir granules placebo, and the control group will receive Oseltamivir granules with a XFQOL placebo for 5 days, followed by a 2-day post-treatment observation. The primary endpoint was clinical recovery time, while secondary endpoints included complete fever resolution time, the area under the curve (AUC) of Canadian Acute Respiratory Illness and Flu Scale (CARIFS) symptom dimension Score over time, Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) syndrome efficacy, disappearance rates for individual symptoms, incidences of complications and severe and critical influenza, the usage of acetaminophen, and viral negative conversion rate. Safety evaluation focused on adverse events (AE) and adverse drug reactions (ADR).ResultsA total of 418 participants were included in the Full Analysis Set, with 208 in the experimental group and 210 in the control group. Baseline characteristics were comparable between the groups. The median time to clinical recovery was 3 days for both groups, with a hazard ratio and its 95% confidence interval (experimental group/control group) of 1.115 (95% CI: 0.912–1.363). Non-inferiority testing demonstrated that the experimental group was not inferior to the control group. Subgroup analyses (positive for RT-PCR influenza, positive for RT-PCR influenza A, positive for RT-PCR influenza B) yielded results consistent with the primary endpoint. The median time to complete fever resolution was 32 h in both groups, with no statistically significant difference (P = 0.407). There were no statistically significant differences in the AUC of CARIFS symptom scores over time between the groups (P = 0.211). No significant differences were observed between the groups in the efficacy rates of TCM syndromes of Wind-Heat Invading the Defense Syndrome (P = 0.076) and Fright-complicated Syndrome (P = 0.168); however, significant differences were found in Phlegm-complicated Syndrome (P = 0.008) and Food-stagnation-complicated Syndrome (P = 0.024). The disappearance rates for individual symptoms, such as red and swollen pharynx, cough, copious sputum or audible phlegm sounds in the throat, and lack of appetite, showed statistically significant differences between the groups (P < 0.05), while no significant differences were observed for other symptoms. No statistically significant differences were observed between the experimental and control groups in the incidence of complications and severe and critical influenza, the usage of acetaminophen, and viral negative conversion rate (P > 0.05). The incidence rates of AE (P = 0.885) and ADR (P = 0.685) were comparable between the two groups, with no statistically significant differences observed.ConclusionThe efficacy of XFQOL in treating pediatric influenza (Wind-Heat Invading the Defense Syndrome) is non-inferior to Oseltamivir with respect to clinical recovery time. Additionally, its effectiveness in terms of fever reduction, symptom alleviation, incidences of complications and severe and critical influenza, the usage of acetaminophen, and viral negative conversion rate is comparable to that of Oseltamivir. Furthermore, it demonstrates good safety, suggesting its potential for clinical application.Clinical Trial Registration:clinicaltrials.gov, identifier ChiCTR2300076191.

There is growing interest in avian influenza (AI) epidemiology to predict disease risk in wild and domestic birds, and prevent transmission to humans. However, understanding the epidemic dynamics of highly pathogenic (HPAI) viruses remains challenging because they have rarely been detected in wild birds. We used modeling to integrate available scientific information from laboratory and field studies, evaluate AI dynamics in individual hosts and waterfowl populations, and identify key areas for future research. We developed a Susceptible-Exposed-Infectious-Recovered (SEIR) model and used published laboratory challenge studies to estimate epidemiological parameters (rate of infection, latency period, recovery and mortality rates), considering the importance of age classes, and virus pathogenicity. Infectious contact leads to infection and virus shedding within 1–2 days, followed by relatively slower period for recovery or mortality. We found a shorter infectious period for HPAI than low pathogenic (LP) AI, which may explain that HPAI has been much harder to detect than LPAI during surveillance programs. Our model predicted a rapid LPAI epidemic curve, with a median duration of infection of 50–60 days and no fatalities. In contrast, HPAI dynamics had lower prevalence and higher mortality, especially in young birds. Based on field data from LPAI studies, our model suggests to increase surveillance for HPAI in post-breeding areas, because the presence of immunologically naïve young birds is predicted to cause higher HPAI prevalence and bird losses during this season. Our results indicate a better understanding of the transmission, infection, and immunity-related processes is required to refine predictions of AI risk and spread, improve surveillance for HPAI in wild birds, and develop disease control strategies to reduce potential transmission to domestic birds and/or humans.

Canine Influenza Treatment Market Outlook

The global canine influenza treatment market size was valued at approximately $XX billion in 2023 and is projected to reach $XX billion by 2032, exhibiting a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of XX% during the forecast period. The growth of this market is primarily driven by the increasing incidence of canine influenza, heightened awareness among pet owners regarding pet health, and advancements in veterinary medicine.

One of the main growth factors for the canine influenza treatment market is the rising prevalence of this infectious disease among dogs. Canine influenza, also known as dog flu, is a contagious respiratory disease caused by specific strains of influenza viruses. Outbreaks have been reported in various parts of the world, prompting pet owners to seek effective treatments. The heightened awareness and concern for pet health have significantly contributed to market growth. As pet ownership continues to rise globally, the demand for veterinary services and treatments is also expected to increase, further propelling the market.

Another significant factor driving the growth of the canine influenza treatment market is the increasing number of veterinary healthcare facilities. Veterinary clinics and hospitals are expanding their services to cater to the growing needs of pet owners. These facilities are equipped with advanced diagnostic tools and treatment options, ensuring better care for pets. The availability of specialized veterinary services and the growing adoption of pet insurance are also expected to contribute to market growth during the forecast period. Additionally, the advent of telemedicine in veterinary care has made it easier for pet owners to access professional advice and treatment options, further bolstering the market.

The development and approval of new vaccines and therapeutic drugs are also playing a crucial role in market expansion. The pharmaceutical industry is investing heavily in research and development to create more effective and safer treatments for canine influenza. Vaccines, in particular, are gaining importance as a preventive measure, reducing the incidence and severity of outbreaks. The increasing focus on pet wellness and preventive care is expected to drive the adoption of vaccines and other preventive measures, thereby supporting market growth.

Atipamezole, a well-known alpha-2 adrenergic antagonist, is increasingly being recognized for its potential in veterinary medicine, particularly in reversing the sedative effects of certain anesthetics in small animals. Its application in canine influenza treatment is of interest due to its ability to enhance recovery times and improve the overall well-being of affected pets. As the canine influenza treatment market continues to expand, the role of Atipamezole in providing supportive care and facilitating faster recuperation is gaining attention. This drug's efficacy in counteracting sedation without significant side effects makes it a valuable tool for veterinarians aiming to optimize treatment outcomes for dogs suffering from influenza.

Regionally, North America is expected to hold the largest share of the canine influenza treatment market, driven by the high pet ownership rates and well-established veterinary healthcare infrastructure. Europe is also anticipated to witness significant growth due to the increasing awareness of pet health and the rising number of veterinary clinics and hospitals. The Asia Pacific region is projected to experience the highest growth rate, attributed to the growing pet adoption rates, rising disposable incomes, and increasing awareness of veterinary care. Latin America and the Middle East & Africa are also expected to contribute to market growth, albeit at a slower pace, driven by improving veterinary healthcare services and increasing pet ownership.

Treatment Type Analysis

In the canine influenza treatment market, the treatment type segment is divided into antiviral drugs, antibiotics, anti-inflammatory drugs, vaccines, and others. Antiviral drugs play a crucial role in managing and controlling the spread of the virus among infected dogs. These drugs work by inhibiting the replication of the virus, reducing the severity and duration of the illness. The demand for antiviral drugs is expected to increase as more cases of canine influenza are reported, and pet owners seek effective treatments to alleviate their pets' symptoms.

Vaccines are ano

Demobilization following the First World War saw millions of soldiers return to their home countries from the trenches, and in doing so, they brought with them another wave of the deadliest and far-reaching pandemic of all time. As the H1N1 influenza virus, known as the Spanish Flu, spread across the world and infected between one third and a quarter of the global population, it impacted all areas of society. One such impact was on workers' wages, as the labor shortage drove up the demand for skilled workers, which then increased wages. In the United States, wages had already increased due to the shortage of workers caused by the war, however the trend increased further in the two or three years after the war, despite the return of so many personnel from overseas.

In the first fifteen years of the twentieth century, wages across the shown industries had increased gradually and steadily in line with inflation, with the hourly wage in manufacturing increasing from roughly 15 cents per hour to 21 cents per hour in this period. Between 1915 and 1921 or 1921 however, the hourly rate more than doubled across most of these industries, with the hourly wage in manufacturing increasing from 21 cents per hour in 1915 to 56 cents per hour in 1920. Although manufacturing wages were the lowest among those shown here, the trend was similar across even the highest paying trades, with hourly wages in the building trade increasing from 57 cents per hour in 1915 to one dollar and eight cents in 1921. The averages of almost all these trades decreased again in 1922, before plateauing or increasing at a slower rate throughout the late 1920s. Other factors, such as the Wall Street Crash of 1929 and subsequent Great Depression, make comparing this data with wages in later decades more difficult, but it does give some insight into the economic effects of pandemics in history.

USDA reports declining egg costs post bird flu. Easter retail hours vary, with Walmart open and Costco closed.

FluWatch is Canada's national surveillance system that monitors the spread of flu and flu-like illnesses on an on-going basis. The FluWatch program consists of a network of labs, hospitals, doctor's offices and provincial and territorial ministries of health. Program objectives include to: • Detect flu outbreaks across the country as early as possible • Provide timely up-to-date information on flu activity in Canada and abroad to health professionals [and interested Canadians] • Monitor circulating strains of the flu virus (like H1N1) and assess their sensitivity to antiviral medications, [such as Tamiflu and Relenza]. Antivirals, when used by doctors to treat flu, can help reduce the severity of the illness and the recovery time for a patient • Provide information that the World Health Organization can use to make its recommendations on the best vaccine to use for seasonal flu shots.

Two commercially available vaccines based on the recombinant herpes virus of turkeys (rHVT) vector were tested against a recent North American clade 2.3.4.4b HPAI virus isolate: A/turkey/Indiana/22-003707-003/2022 H5N1 in specific pathogen free white leghorn (WL) chickens and commercial broiler chickens. One rHVT-H5 vaccine encodes a hemagglutinin (HA) gene designed by the computationally optimized broadly reactive antigen method (COBRA-HVT vaccine). The other encodes an HA gene of a clade 2.2 virus (2.2-HVT vaccine). There was 100% survival of both breeds in the COBRA-HVT vaccinated groups and in the 2.2-HVT vaccinated groups there was 94.8% and 90% survival of the WL and broilers respectively. Compared to the 2.2-HVT vaccinated groups, WL in the COBRA-HVT vaccinated group shed significantly lower mean viral titers by the cloacal route and broilers shed significantly lower titers by the oropharyngeal route than broilers. Virus titers detected in oral and cloacal swabs were otherwise similar among both vaccine groups and chicken breeds. To assess antibody-based tests to identify birds that have been infected after vaccination (DIVA-VI), sera collected after the challenge were tested with enzyme-linked lectin assay-neuraminidase inhibition (ELLA-NI) for N1 neuraminidase antibody detection and by commercial ELISA for detection of antibodies to the NP protein. As early as 7 days post challenge (DPC) 100% of the chickens were positive by ELLA-NI. ELISA was less sensitive with a maximum of 75% positive at 10DPC in broilers vaccinated with 2.2-HVT. Both vaccines provided protection from challenge to both breeds of chickens and ELLA-NI was sensitive at identifying antibodies to the challenge virus therefore should be evaluated further for DIVA-VI.MethodsViruses. All procedures using infectious material were reviewed and approved by the Institutional Biosafety Committee of US National Poultry Research Center (USNPRC), US Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Athens, GA. The HPAI virus isolate A/turkey/Indiana/22-003707-003/2022 H5N1 (TK/IN/22) was provided by Dr. Mia Torchetti, National Veterinary Services Laboratories, US Department of Agriculture-Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Ames, IA. The A/Vietnam/1203/2004 H5N1 HPAI virus (Viet/04), A/Whooper Swan/Mongolia/244/2005 H5N1 (WS/Mongolia/05) HPAI virus, and A/Flycatcher/CA/14875-1/1994 H7N1 low pathogenic avian influenza virus isolates were provided by the repository at the USNPRC. Virus isolates were propagated and titrated in SPF embryonating chicken eggs using standard procedures [1]. Titers were determined using the Reed-Muench method [2].Vaccines. Two commercial rHVT-H5 vaccines were selected because they are licensed in the US (and may be licensed elsewhere) and were supplied by the manufacturers: 2.2-HVT (Vectormune HVT AIV, Ceva Animal Health LLC, Lenexa, KS) (serial 395-134); and COBRA-HVT (Vaxxitek HVT+IBD+H5, Boehringer-Ingelheim Animal Health USA, Ridgefield, CT) (serial EW003). The amino acid similarity between the vaccine antigens and the challenge virus HA1 was 91.7% (COBRA-HVT) and 91.2% (2.2-HVT).Challenge study design. All animal work was reviewed and approved by the USNPRC Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee. Mixed sex, SPF WL chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) were obtained at hatch from in-house flocks. Broiler chicken eggs were obtained from a commercial hatchery at 18 days of incubation prior to administration of any in ovo vaccines and were hatched on-site. All birds were randomly assigned to vaccine groups based on breed. Vaccine groups are shown in Table 1. All vaccines were prepared and administered on the day of hatch by the subcutaneous route at the nape of the neck in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions (0.2ml per chicken). Serum was collected from all chickens 25 days post vaccination to evaluate the antibody response to the vaccines.Four weeks post vaccination (four weeks of age) chickens were challenged with a target dose 6.0log10 50% egg infectious doses (EID50) per bird of TK/IN/22 in 0.1ml by the intrachoanal route (titration of the challenge virus after dilution confirmed the challenge dose to be 6.7log10 EID50 per bird). Oropharyngeal and CL swabs were collected from all birds at 2-, 4-, and 7-days post challenge (DPC). Swabs were also collected from dead and euthanized birds.To evaluate antibody-based DIVA-VI tests, serum was collected at 7-, 10- and 14DPC. Mortality and morbidity were recorded for 14DPC. Surviving birds were euthanized at 14DPC. If birds were severely lethargic or presented with neurological signs, they were euthanized and were counted as mortality at the next observation time for mean death time calculations. Euthanasia was performed by cervical dislocation in accordance with American Veterinary Medical Association guidelines.Quantitative rRT-PCR (qRRT-PCR). RNA was extracted from OP and CL swabs using the MagMax magnetic bead extraction kit (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA) with the wash modifications as described by Das et al., [3]. Quantitative real-time RT-PCR was conducted as described previously [4] on a QuantStudio 5 (Thermo Fisher Scientific) instrument. A standard curve was generated from a titrated stock of TK/IN/22 and was used to calculate titer equivalents using the real time PCR instrument’s software.Hemagglutination inhibition assay. Hemagglutination inhibition (HI) assays were run in accordance with standard procedures [5]. All pre-challenge sera collected at 25 days post vaccination were tested against the challenge virus and the closest isolates available to the vaccine antigens. The serum from the 2.2-HVT group was tested against WS/Mongolia/05 (99.3% similarity) and the serum from the COBRA-HVT group was tested against Viet/04 (98.2% similarity). Titers of eight or below were considered negative.Commercial ELISA. A commercial AIV antibody ELISA (AI Ab Test, IDEXX laboratories, Westbrook, ME) was used in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. Sera were tested to detect anti-NP antibodies pre-challenge (25days pos-vaccination) and at 7-, 10- and 14DPC.Enzyme-linked lectin assay (ELLA) for detection of neuraminidase inhibition (NI) antibody. The ELLA was performed as previously described with minor modifications [6, 7]. Briefly, the NA activity of a beta-propiolactone inactivated H7N1 virus (A/Flycatcher/CA/14875-1/1994) was quantified to determine the effective concentration (EC) of antigen. The 98% EC (EC98) of antigen was subsequently used for the ELLA-NI assays. For ELLA-NI assay, the antigen and serum mixture was incubated overnight (approximately18hr) at 37°C and the NA activity was determined following the procedure as described in Spackman et al. [7]. The average background absorbance value was subtracted from the sample absorbance value then that value was divided by the average values of wells with only NA antigen. This value was multiplied by a factor of 100 to calculate the percent NA activity. The percent NI activity of individual serum samples was determined by subtracting the percent NA activity from 100%. A cut-off value for positive NI activity was determined by adding three standard deviations to the mean NI activity of pre-challenge sera (i.e., NA antibody negative sera) of each corresponding group of chickens at 7-, 10- and 14DPC. Each serum was tested at dilutions of 1:20 and 1:40.References.1. Spackman E, Killian ML. Avian Influenza Virus Isolation, Propagation, and Titration in Embryonated Chicken Eggs. Methods Mol Biol. 2020;2123:149-64. Epub 2020/03/15.2. Reed LJ, Muench H. A simple method for estimating fifty percent endpoints. American Journal of Hygiene. 1938;27:493-7.3. Das A, Spackman E, Pantin-Jackwood MJ, Suarez DL. Removal of real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) inhibitors associated with cloacal swab samples and tissues for improved diagnosis of Avian influenza virus by RT-PCR. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation. 2009;21(6):771-8.4. Spackman E, Senne DA, Myers TJ, Bulaga LL, Garber LP, Perdue ML, et al. Development of a real-time reverse transcriptase PCR assay for type A influenza virus and the avian H5 and H7 hemagglutinin subtypes. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2002;40(9):3256-60.5. Spackman E, Sitaras I. Hemagglutination Inhibition Assay. Methods Mol Biol. 2020;2123:11-28. Epub 2020/03/15.6. Bernard MC, Waldock J, Commandeur S, Strauss L, Trombetta CM, Marchi S, et al. Validation of a Harmonized Enzyme-Linked-Lectin-Assay (ELLA-NI) Based Neuraminidase Inhibition Assay Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) for Quantification of N1 Influenza Antibodies and the Use of a Calibrator to Improve the Reproducibility of the ELLA-NI With Reverse Genetics Viral and Recombinant Neuraminidase Antigens: A FLUCOP Collaborative Study. Front Immunol. 2022;13:909297. Epub 20220617.7. Spackman E, Suarez DL, Lee CW, Pantin-Jackwood MJ, Lee SA, Youk S, Ibrahim S. Efficacy of inactivated and RNA particle vaccines against a North American Clade 2.3.4.4b H5 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus in chickens. Vaccine. 2023. Epub 20231104.

In 2023, there were **** deaths from influenza and pneumonia in Canada per 100,000 population. Influenza, more commonly known as the flu, is a highly contagious viral infection and frequent cause of pneumonia. Pneumonia is a more serious infection of the lungs and is particularly deadly among young children, the elderly, and those with certain chronic conditions. Vaccination There exist vaccines for both influenza and pneumonia, and although effectiveness varies, vaccination remains one of the best ways to prevent these illnesses. Nevertheless, only around ** percent of Canadians received an influenza vaccination in the past year in 2022. The most common reason why Canadian adults received the influenza vaccination was to prevent infection or because they did not want to get sick. Pneumonia hospitalization Every year tens of thousand of people in Canada are hospitalized for pneumonia. In *********, there were over ****** emergency room visits for pneumonia in Canada, a substantial decrease from the numbers recorded from 2010 to 2020. Perhaps unsurprisingly, those aged 65 years and older account for the highest number of emergency room visits for pneumonia. The median length of stay for emergency department visits for pneumonia in Canada has increased in recent years, with the median length of stay around *** minutes in *********.

Rank, number of deaths, percentage of deaths, and age-specific mortality rates for the leading causes of death, by age group and sex, 2000 to most recent year.

Risk of death is estimated based on the number of influenza related deaths per 100,000 subpopulation for the specific age and risk groups. Total deaths is estimated based on the proportion of influenza related deaths for the specific age and risk groups among total influenza related deaths. Net benefits are the difference in cost due to improved health outcomes from vaccination and the vaccination cost. Return on investment is the gain in net benefits relative to the vaccination cost, that is, dollars saved per $1 investment in vaccine intervention.

The experimental mouse model is important for understanding the impact of aging on immune function. Humans are exposed to multiple pathogens during their lifetime, which has a significant effect on immune function as they age, while laboratory mice are aged under specific pathogen-free (SPF) conditions, reducing their exposure to pathogens throughout life. To determine the impact of accumulating antigen exposure on immunity in the aging mouse, and to develop a more relevant model, we sequentially infected young female mice with four distinct pathogens, a murine g-herpesvirus (gHV68), Sendai virus, murine cytomegalovirus (mCMV) and Heligmosomoides polygyrus (H. poly) at eight-week intervals, while mock-infected mice received PBS. After aging the mice to 18-20 months, we analyzed multiple immune parameters, compared to control, mock-infected mice maintained under SPF conditions. We assessed transcriptional activity in peripheral blood, T cell phenotype, CD8 T cell repertoire, and the response of the animals to infection with influenza virus and M. tuberculosis. Our data show enhancedtranscriptional activation in sequentially infected aged mice, with changes in some CD8 T cell subsets. However, there was no measurable difference in the response of mock and sequentially infected aged mice to de novo infection with either influenza virus or M. tuberculosis at 18-20 months. Unexpectedly, undertaking a similar influenza challenge in 25-month-old female mice revealed a significantly higher survival rate for serially infected (80%) versus mock infected (20%) mice. These data suggest that while exposure to a variety of pathogen challenges in the mouse model does not overtly impact cellular markers of immunity in aged female mice following de novo respiratory infection, subtle changes may emerge in other compartments or with increasing age. A microarray gene expression analysis of peripheral blood from 42 aged C57/BL6 female mice (18-22 months), which were given four different inoculations with PBS (mock-infected (MI, N =2)), or a sequentially infected (SI, N = 2) with a murine -herpesvirus (HV68), Sendai virus, murine cytomegalovirus (mCMV) and Heligmosomoides polygyrus (H. poly) at 8 week intervals, with no interventions or re-infections until sacrifice.

DATA DESCRIPTION: Citation: Alexander F. More, Christopher P. Loveluck, Heather Clifford, Michael J. Handley, Elena V. Korotkikh, Andrei V. Kurbatov, Michael McCormick and Paul A. Mayewski. (2020). The Impact of a six-year climate anomaly on the 'Spanish Flu' Pandemic and WWI. GeoHealth, American Geophysical Union. Coverage: LATITUDE: 45.928930 * LONGITUDE: 7.876260 DATE/TIME START: 2013-08-04T00:00:00 * DATE/TIME END: 2013-08-11T00:00:00 MINIMUM ELEVATION: 4484.0 m * MAXIMUM ELEVATION: 4484.0 m Event(s): "Colle_Gnifetti_KCC * LATITUDE: 45.928930 * LONGITUDE: 7.876260 * DATE/TIME START: 2013-08-04T00:00:00 * DATE/TIME END: 2013-08-11T00:00:00 * ELEVATION: 4484.0 m * Recovery: 71.95 m (including 1.6 m snow pit) * LOCATION: Colle Gnifetti, Monte Rosa, Swiss Alps * DEVICE: Ice drill (ICEDRILL) * COMMENT: Storage: at -20°C in isolating polystyrene boxes. Recovery and analysis of the KCC ice core, associated written records, and interpretation were supported by the Arcadia Fund of London; The Initiative for the Science of the Human Past at Harvard; The Climate Change Institute at the University of Maine. Institutes involved in drilling, processing and funding: Heidelberg University (D), Institute of Environmental Physics (leading institute); University of Bern (CH), Physics Institute, Climate and Environmental Physics (Remo Walther, Samuel Marending, Jakob Schwander); University of Maine (US), Climate Change Institute; University of Fribourg (CH); Alfred-Wegener-Institut Helmholtz-Zentrum für Meeres- und Polarforschung (D). Comment: Dataset corresponds to Figures 1 (High marine air influx in the years of World War I and Spanish Influenza 1914-1919) and 2 (Marine air influx and total deaths in Europe 1914-1920) in the final manuscript. IC Cl- measurements from 1800-1920 C.E. Parameter(s): Age C.E. Cl- µg/L

Body weight and survival rate of immunized mice upon lethal challenge with influenza virus.