South Africa had Africa's highest gross domestic expenditure on research and development (GERD) as a share of GDP. In 2022, the country's GERD reached 0.85 percent of the GDP. Kenya, Egypt, and Morocco followed, with 0.81 percent, 0.72 percent, and 0.71 percent, respectively. Africa was the region with the lowest domestic spending on GERD worldwide. In absolute terms, Egypt topped the continent's ranking in R&D spending value.

United States US: GERD: % of GDP data was reported at 3.586 % in 2022. This records an increase from the previous number of 3.483 % for 2021. United States US: GERD: % of GDP data is updated yearly, averaging 2.612 % from Dec 1981 (Median) to 2022, with 42 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 3.586 % in 2022 and a record low of 2.268 % in 1981. United States US: GERD: % of GDP data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. The data is categorized under Global Database’s United States – Table US.OECD.MSTI: Gross Domestic Expenditure on Research and Development: OECD Member: Annual.

For the United States, from 2021 onwards, changes to the US BERD survey questionnaire allowed for more exhaustive identification of acquisition costs for ‘identifiable intangible assets’ used for R&D. This has resulted in a substantial increase in reported R&D capital expenditure within BERD. In the business sector, the funds from the rest of the world previously included in the business-financed BERD, are available separately from 2008. From 2006 onwards, GOVERD includes state government intramural performance (most of which being financed by the federal government and state government own funds). From 2016 onwards, PNPERD data are based on a new R&D performer survey. In the higher education sector all fields of SSH are included from 2003 onwards.

Following a survey of federally-funded research and development centers (FFRDCs) in 2005, it was concluded that FFRDC R&D belongs in the government sector - rather than the sector of the FFRDC administrator, as had been reported in the past. R&D expenditures by FFRDCs were reclassified from the other three R&D performing sectors to the Government sector; previously published data were revised accordingly. Between 2003 and 2004, the method used to classify data by industry has been revised. This particularly affects the ISIC category “wholesale trade” and consequently the BERD for total services.

U.S. R&D data are generally comparable, but there are some areas of underestimation:

1. i) Up to 2008, Government sector R&D performance covers only federal government activities. That by State and local government establishments is excluded;
2. ii) Except for the Government and the Business Enterprise sectors, the R&D data exclude most capital expenditures. For the Business Enterprise sector, depreciation is reported in place of gross capital expenditures up to 2014. Higher education (and national total) data were revised back to 1998 due to an improved methodology that corrects for double-counting of R&D funds passed between institutions.

Breakdown by type of R&D (basic research, applied research, etc.) was also revised back to 1998 in the business enterprise and higher education sectors due to improved estimation procedures.

The methodology for estimating researchers was changed as of 1985. In the Government, Higher Education and PNP sectors the data since then refer to employed doctoral scientists and engineers who report their primary work activity as research, development or the management of R&D, plus, for the Higher Education sector, the number of full-time equivalent graduate students with research assistantships averaging an estimated 50 % of their time engaged in R&D activities. As of 1985 researchers in the Government sector exclude military personnel. As of 1987, Higher education R&D personnel also include those who report their primary work activity as design.

Due to lack of official data for the different employment sectors, the total researchers figure is an OECD estimate up to 2019. Comprehensive reporting of R&D personnel statistics by the United States has resumed with records available since 2020, reflecting the addition of official figures for the number of researchers and total R&D personnel for the higher education sector and the Private non-profit sector; as well as the number of researchers for the government sector. The new data revise downwards previous OECD estimates as the OECD extrapolation methods drawing on historical US data, required to produce a consistent OECD aggregate, appear to have previously overestimated the growth in the number of researchers in the higher education sector.

Pre-production development is excluded from Defence GBARD (in accordance with the Frascati Manual) as of 2000. 2009 GBARD data also includes the one time incremental R&D funding legislated in the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009. Beginning with the 2000 GBARD data, budgets for capital expenditure – “R&D plant” in national terminology - are included. GBARD data for earlier years relate to budgets for current costs only.

Turkey TR: Gross Domestic Expenditure on R&D (GERD) data was reported at 198,669.744 TRY mn in 2022. This records an increase from the previous number of 101,737.888 TRY mn for 2021. Turkey TR: Gross Domestic Expenditure on R&D (GERD) data is updated yearly, averaging 4,399.881 TRY mn from Dec 1990 (Median) to 2022, with 33 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 198,669.744 TRY mn in 2022 and a record low of 1.276 TRY mn in 1990. Turkey TR: Gross Domestic Expenditure on R&D (GERD) data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Turkey – Table TR.OECD.MSTI: Gross Domestic Expenditure on Research and Development: OECD Member: Annual.

Before 2016, total R&D personnel data for Türkiye are underestimated because personnel data for the Higher Education sector only include researchers. From 2008, universities’ own R&D funds are included in funding from the Higher education whereas they were previously distributed into the other funding categories.

Israel IL: Gross Domestic Expenditure on R&D (GERD) data was reported at 106,167.659 ILS mn in 2022. This records an increase from the previous number of 91,254.097 ILS mn for 2021. Israel IL: Gross Domestic Expenditure on R&D (GERD) data is updated yearly, averaging 30,466.855 ILS mn from Dec 1991 (Median) to 2022, with 32 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 106,167.659 ILS mn in 2022 and a record low of 3,415.700 ILS mn in 1991. Israel IL: Gross Domestic Expenditure on R&D (GERD) data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Israel – Table IL.OECD.MSTI: Gross Domestic Expenditure on Research and Development: OECD Member: Annual.

For Israel, defence R&D is excluded. Both the business enterprise and higher education surveys were improved in 2009, causing a break in series for the BERD financed by the rest of the world and by the Business Enterprise sector, as well as a break in 2007 for the HERD financed by the rest of the world and by the Higher Education sector. Since 2001, the government sector is covered by a survey; beforehand government R&D was estimated through financial reports and interviews of accountants. From 2000 onwards, hospitals were re-classified to the business sector from the government and PNP sectors.

Data for the higher education sector are partly based on universities’ financial reports. Before 2008, humanities and law are only partially covered in the higher education sector.

The 2009 BERD survey has given more options to businesses to break down the data by sources of funds. Using the results of the 2009 survey, BERD and GERD financed by Business Enterprises and by the rest of the world were revised back to 1993.

The gross domestic expenditure on R&D (GERD) in Poland increased and reached 1.56 percent of GDP in 2023.

Brazil's gross expenditure on research and development (GERD) was 36.5 billion U.S. dollars in purchasing power parity (PPP) terms in 2021. This number was forecast to increase to 37 billion U.S. dollars in PPP in 2022.

Annual estimates of national research and development (R&D) spending in the UK from the public and private sectors: business enterprise, government, higher education and private non-profit organisations.

Estonia EE: Gross Domestic Expenditure on R&D (GERD) data was reported at 641.737 EUR mn in 2022. This records an increase from the previous number of 550.962 EUR mn for 2021. Estonia EE: Gross Domestic Expenditure on R&D (GERD) data is updated yearly, averaging 232.760 EUR mn from Dec 1998 (Median) to 2022, with 25 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 641.737 EUR mn in 2022 and a record low of 28.818 EUR mn in 1998. Estonia EE: Gross Domestic Expenditure on R&D (GERD) data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Estonia – Table EE.OECD.MSTI: Gross Domestic Expenditure on Research and Development: OECD Member: Annual.

In Estonia, GBARD figures come from budget data from 2016 onward, whereas they were previously estimated from R&D survey data.

The dataset "t2020_20" has been discontinued since 02/12/2022.

This table presents the relative shares of the different sources of funds in R&D. More specifically the indicators provided are percentage of GERD (Gross domestic expenditure on R&D) financed respectively by industry, government, the higher education and the private non profit sector. The fifth source of funds shown, which also make the breakdown complete, is GERD financed from abroad. R&D is an activity where there are significant transfers of resources between units, organisations, sectors and countries. The importance of the source of funding has been recognized in one of the Barcelona targets of the Lisbon agenda where it is said that the appropriate split for R&D is 1/3 financed by public funds and 2/3 by private.

RU: GERD per Capita Population: Current PPP data was reported at 327.422 % in 2020. This records an increase from the previous number of 311.294 % for 2019. RU: GERD per Capita Population: Current PPP data is updated yearly, averaging 159.999 % from Dec 1990 (Median) to 2020, with 31 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 327.422 % in 2020 and a record low of 47.740 % in 1995. RU: GERD per Capita Population: Current PPP data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Russian Federation – Table RU.OECD.MSTI: Gross Domestic Expenditure on Research and Development: Non OECD Member: Annual.

In response to Russia's large-scale aggression against Ukraine, the OECD Council decided on 8 March 2022 to immediately suspend the participation of Russia and Belarus in OECD bodies. In view of this decision, the OECD suspended its solicitation of official statistics on R&D from Russian authorities, leading to the absence of more recent R&D statistics for this country in the OECD database. Previously collected and compiled indicators are still available.

The business enterprise sector includes all organisations and enterprises whose main activity is connected with the production of goods and services for sale, including those owned by the state, and private non-profit institutions serving the above-mentioned organisations. In practice however, R&D performed in this sector is carried out mostly by industrial research institutes other than enterprises. This particularity reflects the traditional organisation of Russian R&D.

Headcount data include full-time personnel only, and hence are underestimated, while data in full-time equivalents (FTE) are calculated on the basis of both full-time and part-time personnel. This explains why the FTE data are greater than the headcount data.

New budgetary procedures introduced in 2005 have resulted in items previously classified as GBARD being attributed to other headings and have affected the coverage and breakdown by socio-economic objective.

In 2022, the gross domestic expenditure on R&D (GERD) in Estonia remained nearly unchanged at around 1.78 percent of GDP. However, 2022 marked the sixth consecutive increase of the gross domestic expenditure in this industry. Find more key insights for the gross domestic expenditure on R&D (GERD) in countries like France and Netherlands.

RU: GERD Financed: Business Enterprise Sector data was reported at 29.227 % in 2020. This records a decrease from the previous number of 30.211 % for 2019. RU: GERD Financed: Business Enterprise Sector data is updated yearly, averaging 30.004 % from Dec 1994 (Median) to 2020, with 27 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 35.256 % in 1994 and a record low of 25.507 % in 2010. RU: GERD Financed: Business Enterprise Sector data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Russian Federation – Table RU.OECD.MSTI: Gross Domestic Expenditure on Research and Development: Non OECD Member: Annual.

In response to Russia's large-scale aggression against Ukraine, the OECD Council decided on 8 March 2022 to immediately suspend the participation of Russia and Belarus in OECD bodies. In view of this decision, the OECD suspended its solicitation of official statistics on R&D from Russian authorities, leading to the absence of more recent R&D statistics for this country in the OECD database. Previously collected and compiled indicators are still available.

The business enterprise sector includes all organisations and enterprises whose main activity is connected with the production of goods and services for sale, including those owned by the state, and private non-profit institutions serving the above-mentioned organisations. In practice however, R&D performed in this sector is carried out mostly by industrial research institutes other than enterprises. This particularity reflects the traditional organisation of Russian R&D.

Headcount data include full-time personnel only, and hence are underestimated, while data in full-time equivalents (FTE) are calculated on the basis of both full-time and part-time personnel. This explains why the FTE data are greater than the headcount data.

New budgetary procedures introduced in 2005 have resulted in items previously classified as GBARD being attributed to other headings and have affected the coverage and breakdown by socio-economic objective.

🇪🇺 유럽연합

Research and experimental development (R) comprise creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of man, culture and society and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications (Frascati Manual, 2002 edition, § 63 ). R intensity (R expenditures as a percentage of GDP) is an indicator of high political importance at the EU, national and regional levels.

Total R&D expenditure by source of funding (GOV, HES, BES, PNP, ABR). Created by filtering the original Eurostat dataset.

Intramural R&D expenditure (GERD) by sectors of performance and source of funds

The gross domestic expenditure on research and development (GERD) as a percentage of GDP in Norway decreased in 2022 reaching a 1.56 percent of investment as percentage of the GDP. GERD is the gross domestic expenditure on research and development, and is the total financial resources (both national and foreign) spent on research and development.Find more key insights for the gross domestic expenditure on research and development (GERD) as a percentage of GDP in countries like Denmark and Finland.

FI: Government-Financed GERD: % of GDP data was reported at 0.771 % in 2022. This records an increase from the previous number of 0.770 % for 2021. FI: Government-Financed GERD: % of GDP data is updated yearly, averaging 0.815 % from Dec 1981 (Median) to 2022, with 33 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 0.952 % in 2010 and a record low of 0.497 % in 1981. FI: Government-Financed GERD: % of GDP data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Finland – Table FI.OECD.MSTI: Gross Domestic Expenditure on Research and Development: OECD Member: Annual.

In Finland: a new methodology for calculating the time spent on R&D by personnel in the Higher Education sector was implemented in 2011. As a consequence, R&D personnel (measured in FTE) in the Higher Education sector decreased.

From 2004, R&D personnel data are available according to occupation. Previous breakdown was by formal qualification.

From 1998 to 2004, due to a greater number of responses to the BE survey on the group level, the questionnaire category funds from other foreign enterprises of the group was merged with business enterprise funds (own funds) thus reducing the share of funds coming from the rest of the world.

From 1997, the Higher Education sector includes central university hospitals.

From 1997 and the implementation of ISCED 97, “Researchers” also includes holders of engineering degrees and graduates of vocational polytechnics, degrees which are now classified in First Stage Tertiary Education (ISCED 5A).

In 1991, the method for measuring R&D expenditures in the Government and the Higher Education sectors changed. Since 1994, PNP institutions are included in the Government sector in non-survey years.

Data on GBARD have been revised back to 1991 because of changes in R&D coefficients for certain research institutes. In 1991, there was an upward adjustment in the total due to the inclusion of pension costs. From 1995, funds received by the State research institutes from external sources are excluded from Government allocations. As of 1997, the data covers allocations for central university hospitals.

The gross domestic expenditure on R&D (GERD) in Denmark increased by 0.1 percent of GDP (+3.62 percent) in 2022. In total, the gross domestic expenditure amounted to 2.89 percent of GDP in 2022. Find more key insights for the gross domestic expenditure on R&D (GERD) in countries like Finland and Norway.