Inflation is generally defined as the continued increase in the average prices of goods and services in a given region. Following the extremely high global inflation experienced in the 1980s and 1990s, global inflation has been relatively stable since the turn of the millennium, usually hovering between three and five percent per year. There was a sharp increase in 2008 due to the global financial crisis now known as the Great Recession, but inflation was fairly stable throughout the 2010s, before the current inflation crisis began in 2021. Recent years Despite the economic impact of the coronavirus pandemic, the global inflation rate fell to 3.26 percent in the pandemic's first year, before rising to 4.66 percent in 2021. This increase came as the impact of supply chain delays began to take more of an effect on consumer prices, before the Russia-Ukraine war exacerbated this further. A series of compounding issues such as rising energy and food prices, fiscal instability in the wake of the pandemic, and consumer insecurity have created a new global recession, and global inflation in 2024 is estimated to have reached 5.76 percent. This is the highest annual increase in inflation since 1996. Venezuela Venezuela is the country with the highest individual inflation rate in the world, forecast at around 200 percent in 2022. While this is figure is over 100 times larger than the global average in most years, it actually marks a decrease in Venezuela's inflation rate, which had peaked at over 65,000 percent in 2018. Between 2016 and 2021, Venezuela experienced hyperinflation due to the government's excessive spending and printing of money in an attempt to curve its already-high inflation rate, and the wave of migrants that left the country resulted in one of the largest refugee crises in recent years. In addition to its economic problems, political instability and foreign sanctions pose further long-term problems for Venezuela. While hyperinflation may be coming to an end, it remains to be seen how much of an impact this will have on the economy, how living standards will change, and how many refugees may return in the coming years.

The inflation rate for both Africa, the Middle East, and Latin America and the Caribbean reached more than 12 percent in 2023. Among the provided continents or regions, Asia and the Pacific had the lowest inflation rate that year. Consumer prices increased around the world following the COVID-19 pandemic and the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Inflation and food security Increases in food costs are one of the most prominent impacts of inflation globally. In the United Kingdom, for example, consumers have indicated that they have worried more about food costs in 2023 than in previous years. Meanwhile, in Canada, only a small fraction of survey respondents have said that inflation has had little impact on household food costs. Consumers have responded to rising food costs through various coping mechanisms. For example, Italian consumers have indicated that they purchase less unnecessary products, cut down on waste, and buy more discounted items in order to save costs. Changing consumer behvaiors Outside of food consumption, consumers have changed their purchasing behaviors with other types of goods and services. Surveying has indicated that nearly 60 percent of consumers have adjusted their shopping habits due to inflation. When holiday shopping in 2023, over 50 percent of Americans and over one third of British consumers said inflation had considerable impact on their holiday shopping. By generation, the Millenial generation has suffered the most due to rising inflation, while older generations have experienced less serious impacts.

From March to June 2020, the number of bankruptcies showed a sharp increase as a consequence of the spread of the coronavirus in Sweden and the world. In March and April 2021, there were fewer bankruptcies than the previous year. Moreover, the number of bankruptcies increased across all industries in June 2023, which must be seen in relation with the rising inflation rates.

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Data for the manuscript entitled "Global Financial Crisis, Covid-19, and Russia-Ukraine War: Are the Effects of Macroeconomic Shocks on Global Inflation Different?

Inflation rates rose all around the world in 2022, so also in the G7 countries, where inflation rates varied from 2.5 percent in Japan to over 8 percent in Italy. Inflation rates increased sharply all around the world through 2022, spurred by Russia's invasion of Ukraine in February that year. Especially gas and electricity were hit by price increases following the outbreak of the Russia-Ukraine war. Inflation rates were falling in all G7 economies in 2024.

United States Breakeven Inflation: 5-Year data was reported at 2.410 % in 15 May 2025. This records a decrease from the previous number of 2.440 % for 14 May 2025. United States Breakeven Inflation: 5-Year data is updated daily, averaging 1.900 % from Jan 2003 (Median) to 15 May 2025, with 5597 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 3.590 % in 25 Mar 2022 and a record low of 0.140 % in 19 Mar 2020. United States Breakeven Inflation: 5-Year data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis. The data is categorized under Global Database’s United States – Table US.I: Breakeven Inflation Rate. [COVID-19-IMPACT]

United States Breakeven Inflation: 10-Year data was reported at 2.340 % in 15 May 2025. This records a decrease from the previous number of 2.370 % for 14 May 2025. United States Breakeven Inflation: 10-Year data is updated daily, averaging 2.130 % from Jan 2003 (Median) to 15 May 2025, with 5597 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 3.020 % in 21 Apr 2022 and a record low of 0.500 % in 19 Mar 2020. United States Breakeven Inflation: 10-Year data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis. The data is categorized under Global Database’s United States – Table US.I: Breakeven Inflation Rate. [COVID-19-IMPACT]

In August 2025, the UK inflation rate for goods was 2.8 percent and 4.7percent for services. Prices for goods accelerated significantly, sharply between 2021 and 2022, before falling in 2023. By comparison, prices for services initially grew at a more moderate rate but have also not fallen as quickly. The overall CPI inflation rate for the UK reached a recent high of 11.1 percent in October 2022 and remained in double figures until April 2023, when it fell to 8.7 percent. As of this month, the UK's inflation rate was 3.6 percent, up from 3.4 percent in the previous month. Sectors driving high inflation In late 2024, communication was the sector with the highest inflation rate, with prices increasing by 6.1 percent as of December 2024. During the recent period of high inflation that eased in 2023, food and energy prices were particular high, with housing and energy inflation far higher than in any other sector, peaking at 26.6 percent towards the end of 2022. High food and energy prices since 2021 have been one of the main causes of the cost of living crisis in the UK, especially for low-income households that spend a higher share of their income on these categories. This is likely one of the factors driving increasing food bank usage in the UK, which saw approximately 3.12 million people use a food bank in 2023/24, compared with 1.9 million just before the COVID-19 pandemic. The global inflation crisis The UK has not been alone in suffering rapid price increases since 2021. After the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, a series of economic and geopolitical shocks had a dramatic impact on the global economy. A global supply chain crisis failed to meet rising demand in 2021, leading to the beginning of an Inflation Crisis, which was only exacerbated by Russia's invasion of Ukraine in February 2022. The war directly influenced the prices of food and energy, as both countries were major exporters of important crops. European imports of hydrocarbons from Russia were also steadily reduced throughout 2022 and 2023, resulting in higher energy prices throughout the year.

Inflation Rate: 12 Months Expectation: Average data was reported at 7.000 % in Apr 2025. This records an increase from the previous number of 6.000 % for Mar 2025. Inflation Rate: 12 Months Expectation: Average data is updated monthly, averaging 4.800 % from Aug 1987 (Median) to Apr 2025, with 453 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 7.900 % in Jun 2022 and a record low of 3.600 % in Oct 1995. Inflation Rate: 12 Months Expectation: Average data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by The Conference Board. The data is categorized under Global Database’s United States – Table US.H050: Consumer Confidence Index: Inflation Rate Expectation. [COVID-19-IMPACT]

In 2020 post the COVID-19 pandemic, Saudi Arabia had a change in the year-to-year inflation rate of about *** percent. Among the various regions of the world, it was predicted that the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region would have the highest inflation rate in 2021. Inflation on the rise worldwide Inflation refers to the increase in the prices of goods and services in an economy. Global inflation has been on the rise due to many factors, including supply chain interruptions brought about after major COVID-19 lockdowns. The global inflation rate was expected to peak in 2022 compared to the previous 20 years. Inflation in MENA Inflation comes with varied impacts. It increases the prices of goods and services and subsequently reduces the purchasing power. In 2021, the consumer price index (CPI) of tobacco and narcotics increased to nearly *** in Kuwait. In the United Arab Emirates (UAE), beverage and tobacco prices have similarly increased since 2016.

Russia Inflation Perception: Last 1-2 Months: Can't Respond data was reported at 8.846 % in Jan 2024. This records an increase from the previous number of 8.000 % for Dec 2023. Russia Inflation Perception: Last 1-2 Months: Can't Respond data is updated monthly, averaging 8.000 % from Apr 2017 (Median) to Jan 2024, with 81 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 16.186 % in Jan 2018 and a record low of 3.500 % in May 2017. Russia Inflation Perception: Last 1-2 Months: Can't Respond data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by Russian Public Opinion Research Center. The data is categorized under Russia Premium Database’s Household Survey – Table RU.HE007: Inflation Expectations and Perception: Russian Public Opinion Research Center (VCIOM). [COVID-19-IMPACT]

In 2024, the annual inflation rate for the United Kingdom was 2.5 percent, with the average rate for 2025 predicted to rise to 3.2 percent, revised upwards from an earlier prediction of 2.6 percent. The UK has only recently recovered from a period of elevated inflation, which saw the CPI rate reach 9.1 percent in 2022, and 7.3 percent in 2023. Despite an uptick in inflation expected in 2025, the inflation rate is expected to fall to 2.1 percent in 2026, and two percent between 2027 and 2029. UK inflation crisis Between 2021 and 2023, inflation surged in the UK, reaching a 41-year-high of 11.1 percent in October 2022. Although inflation fell to more usual levels by 2024, prices in the UK had already increased by over 20 percent relative to the start of the crisis. The two main drivers of price increases during this time were food and energy inflation, two of the main spending areas of UK households. Although food and energy prices came down quite sharply in 2023, underlying core inflation, which measures prices rises without food and energy, remained slightly above the headline inflation rate throughout 2024, suggesting some aspects of inflation had become embedded in the UK economy. Inflation rises across in the world in 2022 The UK was not alone in suffering from runaway inflation over the last few years. From late 2021 onwards, various factors converged to encourage a global acceleration of prices, leading to the ongoing inflation crisis. Blocked-up supply chains were one of the main factors as the world emerged from the COVID-19 pandemic. This was followed by energy and food inflation skyrocketing after Russia's invasion of Ukraine. Central bank interest rates were raised globally in response to the problem, possibly putting an end to the era of cheap money that has defined monetary policy since the financial crash of 2008.

Israel Expected Inflation Rate: Capital Market: Second Year Forward data was reported at 2.000 % in Mar 2025. This records a decrease from the previous number of 2.100 % for Feb 2025. Israel Expected Inflation Rate: Capital Market: Second Year Forward data is updated monthly, averaging 2.200 % from Jan 2008 (Median) to Mar 2025, with 207 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 3.800 % in Mar 2022 and a record low of 0.500 % in Jul 2020. Israel Expected Inflation Rate: Capital Market: Second Year Forward data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by Bank of Israel. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Israel – Table IL.I067: Inflation Expectations. [COVID-19-IMPACT]

Russia Observed Inflation: Households with Savings data was reported at 14.200 % pa in Apr 2025. This records an increase from the previous number of 13.600 % pa for Mar 2025. Russia Observed Inflation: Households with Savings data is updated monthly, averaging 12.150 % pa from Sep 2017 (Median) to Apr 2025, with 80 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 20.200 % pa in May 2022 and a record low of 7.200 % pa in Mar 2020. Russia Observed Inflation: Households with Savings data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by Bank of Russia. The data is categorized under Russia Premium Database’s Household Survey – Table RU.HE008: Observed Inflation. [COVID-19-IMPACT]

Russia Inflation Expectation Index data was reported at 78.710 % Point in Mar 2025. This records an increase from the previous number of 76.941 % Point for Feb 2025. Russia Inflation Expectation Index data is updated monthly, averaging 78.900 % Point from Jun 2012 (Median) to Mar 2025, with 97 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 84.500 % Point in Dec 2021 and a record low of 67.190 % Point in May 2022. Russia Inflation Expectation Index data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by Russian Public Opinion Research Center. The data is categorized under Russia Premium Database’s Household Survey – Table RU.HE007: Inflation Expectations and Perception: Russian Public Opinion Research Center (VCIOM). [COVID-19-IMPACT]

Rising inflation rates was the biggest worry of people around the world at the beginning of 2023. 60 percent of the respondents gave this as their biggest worry. Inflation rates rose through 2022 and 2023 following the COVID-19 pandemic and Russia's invasion of Ukraine in February 2022. The Russia-Ukraine war followed in second with half of the respondents worrying about this, whereas climate change and the environment followed in third.

The annual average consumer price index (CPI) in Iceland has increased steadily over the past 20 years. There was a significant increase from 2007 to 2009 following the international financial crisis, which hit the Icelandic economy hard. In 2022, the CPI increased by over 40 points compared to 2021. The monthly inflation rate increased significantly during 2022 following the COVID-19 pandemic and Russia-Ukraine war.

In 2024, Japan had an average inflation rate estimated at 2.74 percent, marking the highest rate of inflation in Japan in almost a decade. However, this figure was still very low compared to most other major economies, such as Japan's fellow G7 members, four of which had inflation rates around six or seven percent in 2023 due to the global inflation crisis. Why is Japan's inflation rate lower? There are a number of contributing factors to Japan's relatively low inflation rate, even during economic crises. Japan eased its Covid restrictions more slowly than most other major economies, this prevented post-pandemic consumer spending that may have driven inflation through supply chain issues caused by higher demand. As the majority of Japan's food and energy comes from overseas, and has done so for decades, the government has mechanisms in place to prevent energy and wheat prices from rising too quickly. Because of this, Japan was able to shield its private sector from many of the negative knock on effects from Russia's invasion of Ukraine, which had a significant impact on both sectors globally. Persistent deflation and national debt An additional factor that has eased the impact of inflation on Japan's economy is the fact that it experienced deflation before the pandemic. Deflation has been a persistent problem in Japan since the asset price bubble burst in 1992, and has been symptomatic of Japan's staggering national debt thereafter. For almost 30 years, a combination of quantitative easing, low interest rates (below 0.5 percent since 1995, and at -0.1% since 2016), and a lack of spending due to low wages and an aging population have combined to give Japan the highest national debt in the world in absolute terms, and second-highest debt in relation to its GDP, after Venezuela. Despite this soaring debt, Japan remains the fourth-largest economy in the world, behind the U.S., China, and Germany.

Russia Inflation Perception: Last 1-2 Months: Very High data was reported at 53.848 % in Jan 2024. This records a decrease from the previous number of 55.439 % for Dec 2023. Russia Inflation Perception: Last 1-2 Months: Very High data is updated monthly, averaging 45.000 % from Apr 2017 (Median) to Jan 2024, with 81 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 66.000 % in Dec 2021 and a record low of 29.750 % in Oct 2022. Russia Inflation Perception: Last 1-2 Months: Very High data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by Russian Public Opinion Research Center. The data is categorized under Russia Premium Database’s Household Survey – Table RU.HE007: Inflation Expectations and Perception: Russian Public Opinion Research Center (VCIOM). [COVID-19-IMPACT]