Abstract This article aims to analyze the leadership of Brazilian state governments on lockdown and social distancing policies to keep COVID-19 from spreading. It is assumed that the states’ policies on this matter are heterogeneous, and their implementation regarding how commercial activities - and others that potentially involve a large concentration of people - is asymmetric. Therefore, the study observed the debates on policy-making processes and on autonomy and federalism to investigate the influence of political or technical-administrative factors on policies adopted at the state level in Brazil. The methodology used content analysis of 134 state norms, mapping the political-party alignment of state governors to the president, analysis of medical and hospital resources of each federation unit based on the National Register of Health Establishments. The emergency context revealed low inter-federative coordination by the federal government, competition among states, and states leadership in crisis management at the local level. The article presents evidence that state governments’ leadership cannot be justified by political party alignment with the president. However, there is a correspondence between both the local health system capacity and the rigor of lockdown and social distancing policies, which indicates that, in an intense social disorder situation, technical rationality was preferable to political bargaining.

Abstract Since the declaration of the global pandemic due to the new coronavirus (Sars-CoV-2) by the World Health Organization (WHO), on March 11, 2020, several measures have been taken by governments around the world regarding social distancing. In Brazil, state governments took the lead in decreeing measures to close schools, suspend public events, and restrict businesses. This article aims to analyze the differences between the Brazilian state governments regarding implementing non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) to combat the coronavirus, based on the calculation of a government action index. Analysis of 367 decrees of 25 state executives was conducted in the first two months of the pandemic in the country. The preliminary results of this analysis suggest different levels of rigor in measures to confront COVID-19 by Brazilian governments. Some states stood out for their proactive adoption of stricter social distancing policies, even before confirming the first case of the disease.

Context

There's a story behind every dataset and here's your opportunity to share yours.

The COVID-19 Government Measures Dataset puts together all the measures implemented by governments worldwide in response to the Coronavirus pandemic. Data collection includes secondary data review. The researched information available falls into five categories:

Social distancing Movement restrictions Public health measures Social and economic measures Lockdowns

Content

Updated last 10/12/2020 The #COVID19 Government Measures Dataset puts together all the measures implemented by governments worldwide in response to the Coronavirus pandemic. Data collection includes secondary data review. The researched information available falls into five categories: - Social distancing - Movement restrictions - Public health measures - Social and economic measures - Lockdowns Each category is broken down into several types of measures.

ID ISO COUNTRY REGION ADMIN_LEVEL_NAME PCODE LOG_TYPE CATEGORY MEASURE_TYPE TARGETED_POP_GROUP COMMENTS NON_COMPLIANCE DATE_IMPLEMENTED SOURCE SOURCE_TYPE LINK ENTRY_DATE ALTERNATIVE SOURCE

Acknowledgements

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Inspiration

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Citation: Sanchez, JN, GA Reyes, BM Lopez, CK Johnson. 2022. The impact of social distancing on early SARS-CoV-2 transmission in the United States. Zoonoses and Public Health. https://doi. org/10.1111/zph.12909

Abstract: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a viral pathogen that quickly became a global pandemic in the winter of 2020 – 2021. In response, governments issued social distancing orders to minimize transmission by reducing community contacts. We tested the efficacy of this social distancing at the state level during the first two months of the pandemic in the United States. We utilized data on daily SARS-CoV-2 case numbers and human community mobility (anonymized, aggregated cellphone location data stratified into six categories used as an index of social distancing), the date of government-issued social distancing orders, demographics, urbanization, and public transportation. We implemented cross-correlation to identify lag times between declines in mobility and SARS-CoV-2 cases. Incorporating state-specific lag times, we tested for associations between case counts and mobility metrics using Bayesian multilevel models. Decreased mobility around grocery stores/pharmacies, retail/recreation locations, transit stations, and workplaces were correlated with decreases in SARS-CoV-2 cases with significant lag times of ≥21 days. Social distancing orders were associated with fewer cumulative SARS-CoV-2 cases when they were put in place earlier. Community mobility had already started declining prior to most social distancing orders, especially the more restrictive orders implemented later in the pandemic. Social distancing is an important tool that has been implemented throughout the pandemic to decrease SARS-CoV-2 transmission, although with significant social and economic impacts. Our results suggest that declines in cases were observed several weeks subsequent to implementation of social distancing measures, and that implementing social distancing earlier could potentially minimize the duration of time these policies need to be in effect. Our findings can inform ongoing management of this pandemic and other emerging infectious disease outbreaks by identifying areas where reductions in mobility are associated with reduced disease transmission, and the expected time frame between behavioral changes and measurable population outcomes.

State and territorial executive orders, administrative orders, resolutions, proclamations, and other official publicly available government communications are collected from government websites and cataloged and coded using Microsoft Excel by one or more coders with one or more additional coders conducting quality assurance.

Data were collected to determine when individuals in states and territories were subject to executive orders, administrative orders, resolutions, proclamations, and other official publicly available government communications related to COVID-19 banning gatherings of various sizes either (1) generally, or specified that the gathering limit applied only when social distancing was not possible, or (2) even if participants practiced social distancing.

These data are derived from on the publicly available state and territorial executive orders, administrative orders, resolutions, and proclamations (“orders”) for COVID-19 that expressly ban gatherings found by the CDC, COVID-19 Community Intervention and Critical Populations Task Force, Monitoring and Evaluation Team & CDC, Center for State, Tribal, Local, and Territorial Support, Public Health Law Program from March 11, 2020 through August 15, 2021. These data will be updated as new orders are collected. Any orders not available through publicly accessible websites are not included in these data. Only official copies of the documents or, where official copies were unavailable, official press releases from government websites describing requirements were coded, as well as official government communications such as announcements that counties have progressed through new phases of reopening pursuant to an executive order, directive, or other executive branch action, and posted to government websites; news media reports on restrictions were excluded. Recommendations and guidance documents not included or adopted by reference in an order are not included in these data. These data do not include mandatory business closures, curfews, or requirements/recommendations for people to stay in their homes. Due to limitations of the National Environmental Public Health Tracking Network Data Explorer, these data do not include tribes or cities, nor was a distinction made between county orders that applied county-wide versus those that were limited to unincorporated areas of the county. Effective and expiration dates were coded using only the date provided; no distinction was made based on the specific time of the day the order became effective or expired. These data do not necessarily represent an official position of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Physical distancing (social distancing) means keeping a distance of at least two metres from others at all times.

Indicators from the Opinions and Lifestyle Survey (OPN) related to the impact of the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic and other illnesses on people, households and communities in Great Britain.

The Assessment Capacities Project (ACAPS) provides independent, high-quality, and timely humanitarian analysis to enable crisis responders to better understand and address the needs of the affected population. ACAPS' COVID19 Government Measures Dataset compiles the measures implemented by governments worldwide in response to the coronavirus pandemic. The measures fall into five categories: social distancing, movement restrictions, public health measures, social and economic measures, and lockdowns. Data are compiled by consultation with government, media, the United Nations, and other organizational sources.

Here are a few use cases for this project:

1. School Safety and Health Compliance: The model can be used by academic institutions such as SMAN 77 to monitor and ensure adherence to social distancing norms in classrooms, playgrounds, cafeterias, or other common areas in real-time.

2. Crowd Management: Event planners or organizations can use the model to manage crowd and seating arrangements for events, ensuring that guidelines for social distancing are being adhered to.

3. Space Design: Architects and interior designers can leverage the model to design classroom layouts or other public spaces, taking into account optimum social distancing guidelines, thereby enhancing the safety and health of the users.

4. Public Policy Compliance: Local government bodies could utilize the model in a broader context to monitor public areas like parks, markets, and transit stations to ensure people are maintaining appropriate social distancing, which is crucial during pandemic situations.

5. Contact Tracing and Risk Mitigation: In case of a positive COVID-19 case in a school setting, authorities can use the model to identify who has been in close contact with the infected individual, helping to mitigate further spread and informing isolation/testing protocol requirements.

Survey data collected for the paper below. Political and personal reactions to COVID-19 during initial weeks of social distancing in the United States Objective: To examine perceptions, behaviors, and impacts surrounding COVID-19 early in the pandemic response. Materials and Methods: A cross-sectional survey of 1,030 U.S. adults was administered on March 31st, 2020. This survey examined attitudes toward media, government, and community responses to COVID-19 by political ideology and sociodemographic factors. Knowledge, anxieties, and impacts of COVID-19 were also assessed. Results: Conservatives were more likely to report that COVID-19 was receiving too much media coverage and people were generally overreacting; liberals were more likely to report the government had not done enough in response to the pandemic. Females and those with lower income experienced more COVID-19 related economic anxieties. Those working and with children at home reported higher social, home, and work disruption. Social distancing behaviors were more common among liberals and were associated with increases in depressive symptoms. Conclusions: Public health experts should consider the political climate in crafting messaging that appeals to the values of those across the political spectrum. Research on the COVID-19 pandemic should continue to monitor the effects of social distancing on mental health and among vulnerable populations.

Social Distancing Monitoring Market Outlook

According to our latest research, the global social distancing monitoring market size reached USD 1.86 billion in 2024, driven by widespread adoption across multiple industries in response to ongoing public health concerns and regulatory mandates. The market is expected to expand at a robust CAGR of 16.7% from 2025 to 2033, projecting a value of USD 8.09 billion by 2033. This strong growth trajectory is underpinned by increased investments in advanced monitoring technologies, the integration of artificial intelligence, and the persistent need for safe public and work environments.

One of the primary growth factors for the social distancing monitoring market is the heightened awareness and prioritization of health and safety protocols across both public and private sectors. The COVID-19 pandemic fundamentally altered global perspectives on workplace and public space safety, accelerating the implementation of monitoring systems to ensure compliance with distancing guidelines. Organizations are increasingly investing in real-time monitoring solutions to minimize the risk of disease transmission, not only for current threats but also as a proactive measure against future health crises. This shift has led to a surge in demand for integrated systems that can seamlessly track, analyze, and report on social distancing behaviors, further propelling market expansion.

Technological advancements are another significant driver fueling the growth of the social distancing monitoring market. Innovations in video analytics, artificial intelligence, RFID, and wearable devices have enabled the creation of sophisticated monitoring solutions that offer high accuracy and scalability. These technologies allow for automated detection of proximity violations, real-time alerts, and comprehensive data analytics, empowering organizations to make informed decisions. The integration of these solutions with existing security and building management systems has further enhanced their appeal, as businesses seek to leverage their current infrastructure for added value. Moreover, the development of user-friendly software interfaces and mobile applications has increased accessibility and adoption rates across various industries.

The evolving regulatory landscape is also playing a pivotal role in shaping the social distancing monitoring market. Governments and international health organizations have introduced stringent guidelines and compliance requirements, particularly in high-density environments such as manufacturing plants, transportation hubs, and retail spaces. These regulations have compelled businesses to adopt monitoring solutions not only to ensure legal compliance but also to foster trust among employees and customers. The emphasis on creating safe environments has become a critical differentiator for organizations, driving further investment in advanced monitoring systems. As regulations continue to evolve, the demand for adaptable and scalable solutions is expected to remain strong, supporting sustained market growth.

Regionally, North America and Europe have emerged as leaders in the adoption of social distancing monitoring solutions, owing to early regulatory actions and significant investments in technological infrastructure. However, the Asia Pacific region is rapidly gaining traction, driven by growing urbanization, increasing public health initiatives, and the proliferation of smart city projects. Latin America and the Middle East & Africa are also witnessing gradual uptake, supported by government-led initiatives to enhance public safety. The regional dynamics are influenced by factors such as population density, regulatory frameworks, and the pace of technological adoption, resulting in varied growth rates across global markets.

Component Analysis

The social distancing monitoring market by component is segmented into hardware, software, and services, each playing a crucial role in the deployment and functionality of monitoring systems. Hardware forms the backbone of these solutions, encompassing

State government responsiveness to COVID-19.

Context

The database provides information for 20 Global South countries – plus 6 Global North countries for reference – that Dalberg staff are either based in or know well. The database content is drawn from publicly available information combined, crucially, with on-the-ground knowledge of Dalberg staff. www.dalberg.com https://data.humdata.org/dataset/government-actions-on-covid-19

Content

The database contains a comprehensive set of 100 non-pharmaceutical interventions – organized in a framework intended to make it easy to observe common variations between countries in the scope and extent of major interventions. Interventions we are tracking include: Health-related: strengthening of healthcare systems, detection and isolation of actual / possible cases, quarantines Policy-related: government coordination and legal authorization, public communications and education, movement restrictions Distancing and hygiene: social distancing measures, movement restrictions, decontamination of physical spaces Economic measures: economic and social measures, logistics / supply chains and security.

Acknowledgements

https://data.humdata.org/dataset/government-actions-on-covid-19 www.dalberg.com

Photo by Adli Wahid on Unsplash

Inspiration

Covid-19 Pandemic.

The Assessment Capacities Project ACAPS Government Measures dataset captures action taken by governments in response to COVID-19 and regroups them into five categories: Social distancing, Movement restrictions, Public health measures, Social and Economic measures. The information is collected from a variety publicly available web sources such as governments (official sites, embassies), media, the United Nations agencies and other organizations. This database aims to capture the chronological evolution of government responses: if a measure is extended, another data point is added; if a measure is phase-out another data point is added.

State and territorial executive orders, administrative orders, resolutions, and proclamations are collected from government websites and cataloged and coded using Microsoft Excel by one coder with one or more additional coders conducting quality assurance.

Data were collected to determine when members of the public in states and territories were subject to state and territorial executive orders, administrative orders, resolutions, and proclamations for COVID-19 that require them to wear masks in public. “Members of the public” are defined as individuals operating in a personal capacity. “In public” is defined to mean either (1) anywhere outside the home or (2) both in retail businesses and in restaurants/food establishments. Data consists exclusively of state and territorial orders, many of which apply to specific counties within their respective state or territory; therefore, data is broken down to the county level.

These data are derived from publicly available state and territorial executive orders, administrative orders, resolutions, and proclamations (“orders”) for COVID-19 that expressly require individuals to wear masks in public found by the CDC, COVID-19 Community Intervention & Critical Populations Task Force, Monitoring & Evaluation Team, Mitigation Policy Analysis Unit, Center for State, Tribal, Local, and Territorial Support, Public Health Law Program, and Max Gakh, Assistant Professor, School of Public Health, University of Nevada, Las Vegas from April 10, 2020 through August 15, 2021. These data will be updated as new orders are collected. Any orders not available through publicly accessible websites are not included in these data. Only official copies of the documents or, where official copies were unavailable, official press releases from government websites describing requirements were coded; news media reports on restrictions were excluded. Recommendations not included in an order are not included in these data. Effective and expiration dates were coded using only the dates provided; no distinction was made based on the specific time of the day the order became effective or expired. These data do not include data on counties that have opted out of their state mask mandate pursuant to state law. These data do not necessarily represent an official position of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Social Distancing Monitoring Market Outlook

According to our latest research, the global social distancing monitoring market size reached USD 1.52 billion in 2024, reflecting the ongoing demand for advanced monitoring solutions across various sectors. The market is projected to grow at a robust CAGR of 17.8% from 2025 to 2033, with the forecasted market size expected to reach USD 6.13 billion by 2033. This remarkable growth is driven primarily by the increasing emphasis on workplace safety, regulatory mandates, and the persistent need for public health measures in the wake of global health crises, especially in densely populated urban centers.

One of the primary growth factors fueling the expansion of the social distancing monitoring market is the heightened awareness of infection control and public safety in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic. Organizations worldwide have prioritized employee and customer safety, leading to accelerated adoption of automated monitoring systems. The integration of advanced technologies such as AI-powered video analytics, IoT-enabled sensors, and real-time data analytics has enabled businesses to ensure compliance with social distancing guidelines effectively. Moreover, the demand for contactless solutions in public spaces, retail environments, and healthcare facilities has further propelled the adoption of these monitoring systems, as organizations strive to minimize transmission risks and create safer environments for all occupants.

Another significant driver is the rapid digital transformation across industries, which has catalyzed the deployment of smart monitoring technologies. The proliferation of wearable devices, RFID tags, and Bluetooth-enabled solutions has made it easier for enterprises and government bodies to track real-time interactions and maintain safe distances in high-traffic areas. In addition, the growing trend of smart cities and the integration of social distancing monitoring systems with existing surveillance infrastructure have created new avenues for market growth. The increasing investment in research and development by key market players, coupled with favorable government initiatives to enhance public safety, is expected to sustain the upward trajectory of the social distancing monitoring market over the forecast period.

The market is also benefiting from the rising adoption of cloud-based deployment models, which offer scalability, remote monitoring capabilities, and cost-effectiveness. Cloud deployment enables organizations to manage multiple sites from centralized dashboards, ensuring consistent and efficient enforcement of social distancing protocols. Furthermore, the shift towards hybrid work models and the reopening of public spaces have underscored the need for adaptable and easily deployable monitoring solutions. As organizations seek to balance operational continuity with health and safety requirements, the demand for flexible and integrated social distancing monitoring systems is anticipated to remain strong in the coming years.

From a regional perspective, North America currently dominates the social distancing monitoring market, accounting for the largest revenue share in 2024, followed closely by Europe and Asia Pacific. The high adoption rate in North America is attributed to stringent regulatory frameworks, advanced technological infrastructure, and the presence of leading market players. Meanwhile, Asia Pacific is expected to witness the fastest growth during the forecast period, driven by rapid urbanization, increasing investments in smart city projects, and heightened public health concerns in densely populated countries such as China and India. Europe, with its robust healthcare infrastructure and proactive government policies, also represents a significant market for social distancing monitoring solutions. The Middle East & Africa and Latin America are gradually catching up, supported by ongoing digitalization efforts and growing awareness of workplace safety standards.

Component Analysis

The social distancing monitoring market is segmented by component into hardware, software, and services, each playing a critical role in the overall effectiveness of monitoring solutions. The hardware segment includes devices such as cameras, sensors, RFID tags, and wearable devices that are essential for real-time data collection and monitoring. In 2024, the hardware segment accounted for the largest share of the market, owing to the widespread deploymen

ABSTRACT: Objective: To analyze the association between the transmission potential of SARS-CoV-2 and the decisions made by the municipal government of Florianópolis (Brazil) regarding social distancing. Methods: We analyzed new cases of COVID-19 identified in Florianópolis residents between February 1 and July 14, 2020, using a nowcasting approach. Decrees related to COVID-19 published in the Official Gazette of the Municipality between February 1 and July 14, 2020 were also analyzed. Based on the actions proposed in the decrees, whether they loosened social distancing measures, or increased or maintained existing restrictions, was analyzed, thus creating a Social Distancing Index. Time-dependent reproduction numbers (Rt) for a period of 14 days prior to each decree were calculated. A matrix was constructed associating the classification of each decree and the Rt values, analyzing the consonance or dissonance between the potential dissemination of SARS-CoV-2 and the actions of the decrees. Results: A total of 5,374 cases of COVID-19 and 26 decrees were analyzed. Nine decrees increased social distancing measures, nine maintained them, and eight loosened them. Of the 26 actions, 9 were consonant and 17 dissonant with the tendency indicated by the Rt. Dissonance was observed in all of the decrees that maintained the distance measures or loosened them. The fastest expansion in the number of new cases and the greatest amount of dissonant decrees was found in the last two months analyzed. Conclusion: There was an important divergence between municipal measures of social distancing with epidemiological indicators at the time of each political decision.

Social media disseminated information and spread misinformation during the COVID-19 pandemic that affected prevention measures, including social distancing and vaccine acceptance. In this study, we aimed to test the effect of a series of social media posts promoting COVID-19 nonpharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) and vaccine intentions and compare effects among 3 common types of information sources: government agency, near-peer parents, and news media. A sample of mothers of teen daughters (N=303) recruited from a prior trial were enrolled in a 3 (information source) × 4 (assessment period) randomized factorial trial from January to March 2021 to evaluate the effects of information sources in a social media campaign addressing NPIs (ie, social distancing), COVID-19 vaccinations, media literacy, and mother–daughter communication about COVID-19. Mothers received 1 social media post per day in 3 randomly assigned Facebook private groups, Monday-Friday, covering all 4 topics each week, plus 1 additional post on a positive nonpandemic topic to promote engagement. Posts in the 3 groups had the same messages but differed by links to information from government agencies, near-peer parents, or news media in the post. Mothers reported on social distancing behavior and COVID-19 vaccine intentions for self and daughter, theoretic mediators, and covariates in baseline and 3-, 6-, and 9-week postrandomization assessments. Views, reactions, and comments related to each post were counted to measure engagement with the messages. Nearly all mothers (n=298, 98.3%) remained in the Facebook private groups throughout the 9-week trial period, and follow-up rates were high (n=276, 91.1%, completed the 3-week posttest; n=273, 90.1%, completed the 6-week posttest; n=275, 90.8%, completed the 9-week posttest; and n=244, 80.5%, completed all assessments). In intent-to-treat analyses, social distancing behavior by mothers (b=–0.10, 95% CI –0.12 to –0.08, P<.001) and daughters (b=–0.10, 95% CI –0.18 to –0.03, P<.001) decreased over time but vaccine intentions increased (mothers: b=0.34, 95% CI 0.19-0.49, P<.001; daughters: b=0.17, 95% CI 0.04-0.29, P=.01). Decrease in social distancing by daughters was greater in the near-peer source group (b=–0.04, 95% CI –0.07 to 0.00, P=.03) and lesser in the government agency group (b=0.05, 95% CI 0.02-0.09, P=.003). The higher perceived credibility of the assigned information source increased social distancing (mothers: b=0.29, 95% CI 0.09-0.49, P<.01; daughters: b=0.31, 95% CI 0.11-0.51, P<.01) and vaccine intentions (mothers: b=4.18, 95% CI 1.83-6.53, P<.001; daughters: b=3.36, 95% CI 1.67-5.04, P<.001). Mothers’ intentions to vaccinate self may have increased when they considered the near-peer source to be not credible (b=–0.50, 95% CI –0.99 to –0.01, P=.05). Decreasing case counts, relaxation of government restrictions, and vaccine distribution during the study may explain the decreased social distancing and increased vaccine intentions. When promoting COVID-19 prevention, campaign planners may be more effective when selecting information sources that audiences consider credible, as no source was more credible in general.

COVID-19 is a highly contagious and novel virus that has prompted government officials to implement restrictive public health orders. It is hypothesized that pandemic-related restrictions may have a detrimental impact on mental health. Longitudinal data were collected through 13 assessments, repeated every two weeks for the initial six months of the COVID-19 pandemic. Participants were recruited through Athabasca University and social media . The final sample consisted of 280 adults from across Canada , with the majority of participants residing in Alberta (63%) and Ontario (20%) . Sociodemographic characteristics, COVID-19 related risk factors, pre-pandemic and pandemic physical activity, and COVID-19 related risk factors were collected at study entry, and mental health (depressive symptoms, anxiety, and loneliness) were collected at each assessment. Multi-level modelling was used to identify mental health trajectories during the initial six months of the pandemic. Mental health symptoms tracked with rising cases of infection and subsequent public health restrictions during the pandemic. Specifically, anxiety and depressive symptoms demonstrated strong longitudinal quadratic trends. Both anxiety and depressive symptoms were high at study entry (May 2020) and decreased over the summer, followed by an increase in the fall and winter months. Loneliness was stable over the follow-up period. Age, sex, living alone, socioeconomic factors, and pre-existing mental health conditions correlated with mental health symptoms during the pandemic's initial six months. This study characterizes within-person changes to mental health (anxiety, depressive symptoms, and loneliness) in a Canadian sample from May 2020 to January 2021 during the COVID-19 pandemic.