This paper shows that racial composition shocks during the Great Migration (1940-1970) reduced the gains from growing up in the northern United States for Black families and can explain 27% of the region’s racial upward mobility gap today. I identify northern Black share increases by interacting pre-1940 Black migrants’ location choices with predicted southern county out-migration. Locational changes, not negative selection of families, explain lower upward mobility, with persistent segregation and increased crime and policing as plausible mechanisms. The case of the Great Migration provides a more nuanced view of moving to opportunity when destination reactions are taken into account.

The Great Migration–the massive migration of African Americans out of the rural South to largely urban locations in the North, Midwest, and West–was a landmark event in US history. Our paper shows that this migration increased mortality of African Americans born in the early twentieth century South. This inference comes from an analysis that uses proximity of birthplace to railroad lines as an instrument for migration. (JEL I12, J15, N31, N32, N91, N92, R23)

This map contains data demonstrating population trends during the great migration from 1910-1970 at the state level.

In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the majority of documented migration to the United States of American came from European countries. Between 1820 and 1957, of the approximate 41 million migrants to the US, over 34 million of these came from Europe. The most commonly documented countries of origin during this time were Germany (6.6 million), Italy (4.9 million), Ireland (4.6 million), Great Britain (4.5 million), and Russia (3.4 million). The first wave of mass migration came in the 1850s, as the Great famine crippled Ireland's population, and many in rural areas of mainland Europe struggled to adapt to industrialization, and economic opportunities attracted many in the 1870s, following the American Civil War. The 1880s saw another wave, as steam powered ships and lower fares made trans-Atlantic journeys much more affordable. The first wave of mass migration from Eastern and Southern Europe also arrived at this time, as industrialization and agricultural advancements led to high unemployment in these regions.

The majority of migrants to the United States settled in major urban centers, which allowed the expansion of industry, leading to the United States' emergence as one of the leading global economies at the turn of the twentieth century. The largest wave of migration to the United states during this period came in the first fifteen years of the 1900s. The influx of migrants from Northern and Western Europe had now been replaced by an influx from Eastern and Southern Europe (although migration from the British Isles was still quite high during this time). European migration fell to it's lowest levels in eighty years during the First World War, before fluctuating again in the interwar period, due to the Great Depression. As the twentieth century progressed, the continent with the highest levels of migration to the US gradually changed from Europe to Latin America, as economic opportunities in Western Europe improved, and the US' relationship with the Soviet Union and other Eastern, communist states became complicated.

This map contains data demonstrating population trends during the great migration from 1910-1970 at the state level.

Approximately 41 million people immigrated to the United States of America between the years 1820 and 1957. During this time period, the United States expanded across North America, growing from 23 to 48 states, and the population grew from approximately 10 million people in 1820, to almost 180 million people by 1957. Economically, the U.S. developed from being an agriculturally focused economy in the 1820s, to having the highest GDP of any single country in the 1950s. Much of this expansion was due to the high numbers of agricultural workers who migrated from Europe, as technological advances in agriculture had lowered the labor demand. The majority of these migrants settled in urban centers, and this fueled the growth of the industrial sector.

American industrialization and European rural unemployment fuel migration The first major wave of migration came in the 1850s, and was fueled largely by Irish and German migrants, who were fleeing famine or agricultural depression at the time. The second boom came in the 1870s, as the country recovered from the American Civil War, and the Second Industrial Revolution took off. The final boom of the nineteenth century came in the 1880s, as poor harvests and industrialization in Europe led to mass emigration. Improvements in steam ship technology and lower fares led to increased migration from Eastern and Southern Europe at the turn of the century (particularly from Italy). War and depression reduces migration Migration to the U.S. peaked at the beginning of the 20th century, before it fluctuated greatly at the beginning of the 20th century. This was not only due to the disruptions to life in Europe caused by the world wars, but also the economic disruption of the Great Depression in the 1930s. The only period between 1914 and 1950 where migration was high was during the 1920s. However, the migration rate rose again in the late 1940s, particularly from Latin America and Asia. The historically high levels of migration from Europe has meant that the most common ethnicity in the U.S. has been non-Hispanic White since the early-colonial period, however increased migration from Latin America, Asia and Africa, and higher fertility rates among ethnic minorities, have seen the Whites' share of the total population fall in recent years (although it is still over three times larger than any other group.

Replication data and code.. Visit https://dataone.org/datasets/sha256%3A077fd55e62b040221238146323aff131ebe6bab4d58a2656ec8426f8e951598c for complete metadata about this dataset.

Between 1820 and 1957, more than six million people emigrated from Germany to the United States. The period with the highest levels of migration came during the 1850s and the 1880s, and over 250 thousand documented migrants came to the US from Germany in 1882 alone. The reasons for these mass migrations were not linked to individual events, but were because of the improved access to trans-Atlantic travel, poor economic opportunities at home (particularly for farmers, who struggled with the rapid industrialization of Germany), and to escape religious persecution in Europe. The periods with the lowest levels of migration from Germany were between 1915 and 1945, and were likely caused by the First and Second World Wars, and also the Great Depression.

Migration to the United States of America fluctuated greatly between 1280 and 1957. The first major wave came in the 1850s, and was primarily made up of Irish migrants fleeing famine and those who could not find work in rural Germany. This set a new trend of mass migration to the United States, and as the decades progressed, steam ship technology improved, as did access to and the affordability of these intercontinental journeys, which led to further migration from all over the world, particularly other areas of Europe. Migration rates decreased greatly in the 1930s and 1940s, due to the Great Depression and Second World War, although these levels increased again in the 1950s.

Replication Data for: Racial Diversity and Exclusionary Zoning: Evidence from the Great Migration

Author: ANN WURST, other, NCGE GEO-LIBRARIANGrade/Audience: high school, ap human geographyResource type: lessonSubject topic(s): migration, diffusion, human geographyRegion: europe, north america, south americaStandards: TEXAS WORLD GEOGRAPHY TEKS (1) History. The student understands how geography and processes of spatial exchange (diffusion) influenced events in the past and helped to shape the present. The student is expected to: (B) trace the spatial diffusion of phenomena such as the Columbian Exchange or the diffusion of American popular culture and describe the effects on regions of contact.

(18) Culture. The student understands the ways in which cultures change and maintain continuity. The student is expected to: (A) analyze cultural changes in specific regions caused by migration, war, trade, innovations, and diffusion;Objectives: STUDENTS WILL BE ABLE TO ANSWER QUESTIONS REGARDING THE DIFFUSION OF DISEASE AND APPLY TO THE CONCEPT OF THE COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE TO DIFFUSION.

STUDENTS WILL BE ABLE TO CREATE A 'R.A.F.T.' MURAL AFTER READING THE ARTICLE 'THE GREAT DISEASE MIGRATION' TO ILLUSTRATE THE IMPACT OF EUROPEAN DISEASES ON THE PEOPLES OF THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE. Summary: THE ACTIVITY INVOLVES A READING AND RAFT ACTIVITY BASED ON THE MIGRATION OF DISEASES FROM EUROPE DURING THE COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE TIME PERIOD TO THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE.

This analysis uses location data collected on elk that were fitted with GPS collars in Idaho for 2007 – 2019. Individuals using a winter range (as defined as a winter herd), were used for the analysis if their location data was available at the time of the analysis. Each individual’s location dataset is used to estimate winter and summer ranges, and seasonal spring and fall migration using net-squared displacement techniques (Bunnefeld et al. 2011). Fall and spring migration locations are used for the migration route analysis. After individual elk spring and fall migration locations are determined, a Brownian Bridge Movement Model (BBMM, Horne et al. 2007) is used to estimate the individuals Utilized Distribution (UD) during the seasonal migrations. Depending of the frequency of the location data, either a BBMM or a Forced Motion Variance model (FMV) are used as an estimate of that season’s migration UD. If locations collected at a less than 7hr schedule, the migration used BBMM modeling techniques. If the schedule was greater than 7 hrs a FMV modeling technique was used (Fatteberge et al, in review). Further, FMV techniques that allowed for a 14 hour gap in location schedule were preferred over FMV models that used a maximum of 27 hr gap. When an individual had several seasonal migrations, the resulting UDs distributions are combined and averaged to create a single UD of all the seasonal migrations conducted by that individual. Individual UDS are then combined for all individuals in the winter herd with available UD information. For migration routes, the following classes were delineated based on the area’s use across the winter herd, used by 1 individual, used by 2individuals to 10% of the winter herd, 10 to 20% use of the winter herd, and greater than 20% use by the winter herd. The combined individual UDS are aggregated to estimate winter herd stopover locations. From the combined winter herd UD, the top 10% of recorded values are selected to represent population level stopovers.Trout and Big Creeks Elk Migration StatisticsAnalyzed/Prepared by: Jodi Berg and Scott Bergen May 2021Spatial MetricsAverage length of Migration: 8.8 milesMaximum Migration Length: 54.1 milesMinimum Migration Length: 1.8 milesTotal Migrations Analyzed: 68Total Number of Individuals: 31Total Number Spring Migrations: 44Total Number Fall Migrations: 24Of 68 individual seasonal migrations, none used Brownian bridge movement models with an 8-hour time-lag, 46 used forced motion variance (1400 m) models with a 14-hour time-lag, and 22 used forced motion variance (1400 m) models with a 27-hour time-lag.Temporal Data Extent of Study: March 7, 2015 – November 2, 2019Spring MigrationFall MigrationStart Date AverageApril 25November 30 Minimum February 20July 23 MaximumAugust 2January 24End Date AverageMay 12December 23 MinimumMarch 5August 18 MaximumSeptember 2February 9Duration Average1617 Minimum33 Maximum8681Migration Use Class StatisticsUse ClassAcres 1 individual181,107 Low (>2 individuals)84,954 Medium (10-20%)39,852 High (>20%)12,976 Stopover10,026

Graph and download economic data for Net County-to-County Migration Flow (5-year estimate) for Big Stone County, MN (DISCONTINUED) (NETMIGNACS027011) from 2009 to 2020 about Big Stone County, MN; migration; flow; MN; Net; 5-year; and population.

Between 1820 and 1957, over 4.5 million people emigrated from Great Britain to the United States. The period with the highest levels of migration came during the 1860s, 70s and 80s, with almost 110 thousand people migrating in 1888 alone. The period with the lowest levels of migration came in the 1930s and early 40s, as the Great Depression caused an economic crisis across the globe, hitting the US and Great Britain particularly hard. Economic recovery in the late 1930s caused the migration rate to increase again, before the Second World War brought the numbers back down in the first half of the 1940s.

Graph and download economic data for Net County-to-County Migration Flow (5-year estimate) for Big Horn County, MT (DISCONTINUED) (NETMIGNACS030003) from 2009 to 2020 about Big Horn County, MT; migration; MT; flow; Net; 5-year; and population.

Net County-to-County Migration Flow (5-year estimate) for Big Stone County, MN was -43.00000 Persons in January of 2020, according to the United States Federal Reserve. Historically, Net County-to-County Migration Flow (5-year estimate) for Big Stone County, MN reached a record high of 78.00000 in January of 2011 and a record low of -291.00000 in January of 2016. Trading Economics provides the current actual value, an historical data chart and related indicators for Net County-to-County Migration Flow (5-year estimate) for Big Stone County, MN - last updated from the United States Federal Reserve on July of 2025.

The whooping crane (Grus americana) is a bird species in North America currently protected under federal endangered species legislation in the United States and Canada. The only self-sustaining and wild population of whooping cranes nests in and around Wood Buffalo National Park near the provincial border of Northwest Territories and Alberta, Canada. Cranes from this population migrate through the Great Plains of North America and winter along the Gulf Coast of Texas at Aransas National Wildlife Refuge and surrounding lands. These data support efforts to delineate a migration corridor for this population that can be used for conservation planning activities, including targeting conservation, mitigation, and recovery actions and assessing threats.

The social and demographic data included in this collection consist of a single data file for each decennial year between 1870 and 2000, covering 10 of the 12 Great Plains states. Information on a variety of social and demographic topics was gathered to historically characterize populations living in counties within the United States Great Plains, in terms of: (1) urban, rural, and total population, (2) vital statistics, (3) net migration, (4) age and sex, (5) nativity and ancestry, (6) education and literacy, (7) religion, (8) industry, and (9) housing and other characteristics. These data include selected material compiled as part of the United States population census. The United States Census of Population and Housing has been conducted since 1790 on a regular schedule that is decennial. The county-level social and demographic data produced by the United States government as a result constitute a consistent series of measures capturing changes in the United States population's size, composition, and other characteristics. A subset of the variables available from the short and long-form survey questionnaires of the United States Census of Population and Housing (as compiled for counties) were extracted from previously existing digital files. Besides the decennial census of the population, county-level data were drawn from an assortment of existing digital files as well as sources that were manually digitized. Other data include compilations of county-level information gathered from various federal agencies and private organizations as well as the agriculture and economic censuses. Supplementing these compilations are manually digitized consumer market data, religious data, and vital statistics, including information about births, deaths, marriage, and divorce.

From 1870 until 1930, relatively low numbers of migrants relocated from Oceania to the United States. These numbers fluctuated between 100 and 2,500 migrants per year for most of this period, which is much lower than the rate of migration from other continents to the United States during these decades. Following the Great Depression in 1929, migration rates remained below 300 people per year until the Second World War. From 1943 until 1950, migration from Oceania to the US jumped from 160, to 6,100 migrants per year, and then fell back to just over 500 migrants per year.

Our analysis for the manuscript, "Planning for climate migration in Great Lake Legacy Cities" uses county level spatial data from the FEMA National Risk Index (USFEMA, 2021) and the CDC SVI ranking system (ATSDR, 2018) in the form of shapefiles(.shp). To create the geovisualization, we used boundaries of the Great Lakes that are published here https://www.glc.org/greatlakesgis. All analysis was conducted using R (2020), with code that can be found here: https://derekvanberkel.github.io/Planning-for-climate-migration-in-Great-Lake-Legacy-Cities/

ATSDR. (2018). Cdc/atsdr social vulnerability index. https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/placeandhealth/svi/fact sheet/fact sheet.html.

USGCRP. (2018). Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the united states: Fourth national climate assessment. US Global Change Research Program.