The mapping depicts a first-order estimate of the combined volumetric percentage of excess ice in the top 5 m of permafrost from segregated, wedge, and relict ice. The estimates for the three ice types are based on modelling by O'Neill et al. (2019) (https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-753-2019), and informed by available published values of ground ice content and expert knowledge. The mapping offers an improved depiction of ground ice in Canada at a broad scale, incorporating current knowledge on the associations between geological and environmental conditions and ground ice type and abundance. It provides a foundation for hypothesis testing related to broad-scale controls on ground ice formation, preservation, and melt.

Ground ice melt caused by climate-induced permafrost degradation may trigger significant ecological change, damage infrastructure, and alter biogeochemical cycles. The fundamental ground ice mapping for Canada is now >20 years old and does not include significant new insights gained from recent field- and remote-sensing-based studies. New modelling incorporating paleogeography is presented in this paper to depict the distribution of three ground ice types (relict ice, segregated ice, and wedge ice) in northern Canada. The modelling uses an expert-system approach in a geographic information system (GIS), founded in conceptual principles gained from empirically based research, to predict ground ice abundance in near-surface permafrost. Datasets of surficial geology, deglaciation, paleovegetation, glacial lake and marine limits, and modern permafrost distribution allow representations in the models of paleoclimatic shifts, tree line migration, marine and glacial lake inundation, and terrestrial emergence, and their effect on ground ice abundance. The model outputs are generally consistent with field observations, indicating abundant relict ice in the western Arctic, where it has remained preserved since deglaciation in thick glacigenic sediments in continuous permafrost. Segregated ice is widely distributed in fine-grained deposits, occurring in the highest abundance in glacial lake and marine sediments. The modelled abundance of wedge ice largely reflects the exposure time of terrain to low air temperatures in tundra environments following deglaciation or marine/glacial lake inundation and is thus highest in the western Arctic. Holocene environmental changes result in reduced ice abundance where the tree line advanced during warmer periods. Published observations of thaw slumps and massive ice exposures, segregated ice and associated landforms, and ice wedges allow a favourable preliminary assessment of the models, and the results are generally comparable with the previous ground ice mapping for Canada. However, the model outputs are more spatially explicit and better reflect observed ground ice conditions in many regions. Synthetic modelling products that incorporated the previous ground ice information may therefore include inaccuracies. The presented modelling approach is a significant advance in permafrost mapping, but additional field observations and volumetric ice estimates from more areas in Canada are required to improve calibration and validation of small-scale ground ice modelling. The ground ice maps from this paper are available in the supplement in GeoTIFF format.

Detailed information about the methods can be found in the publication to which this dataset is a supplement.

Citation

In order to use these data, you must cite this data set with the following citation:

O'Neill, H. B., Wolfe, S. A., and Duchesne, C.: New ground ice maps for Canada using a paleogeographic modelling approach, The Cryosphere, 13, 753–773, doi:10.18739/A22V2C974, 2019

The mapping depicts the relative abundance of relict (buried glacier) ice preserved in upper permafrost at a national scale. The mapping is based on modelling by O'Neill et al. (2019) (https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-753-2019). The mapping offers an improved depiction of ground ice in Canada at a broad scale, incorporating current knowledge on the associations between geological and environmental conditions and ground ice type and abundance. It provides a foundation for hypothesis testing related to broad-scale controls on ground ice formation, preservation, and melt.

The mapping depicts the relative abundance of segregated ice in upper permafrost at a national scale. The mapping is based on modelling by O'Neill et al. (2019) (https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-753-2019). The mapping offers an improved depiction of ground ice in Canada at a broad scale, incorporating current knowledge on the associations between geological and environmental conditions and ground ice type and abundance. It provides a foundation for hypothesis testing related to broad-scale controls on ground ice formation, preservation, and melt.

The mapping depicts the relative abundance of wedge ice in upper permafrost at a national scale. The mapping is based on modelling by O'Neill et al. (2019) (https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-753-2019). The mapping offers an improved depiction of ground ice in Canada at a broad scale, incorporating current knowledge on the associations between geological and environmental conditions and ground ice type and abundance. It provides a foundation for hypothesis testing related to broad-scale controls on ground ice formation, preservation, and melt.

The mapping depicts the relative abundance of relict (buried glacier) ice preserved in upper permafrost at a national scale. The mapping is based on modelling by O'Neill et al. (2019) (https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-753-2019). The mapping offers an improved depiction of ground ice in Canada at a broad scale, incorporating current knowledge on the associations between geological and environmental conditions and ground ice type and abundance. It provides a foundation for hypothesis testing related to broad-scale controls on ground ice formation, preservation, and melt.

This map depicts the distribution, characteristics, and boundaries of permafrost and ground ice in Canada. Permafrost classification is based on the proportion of land that is underlain by permafrost within a a given area.Canada was divided into physiographic units, and each unit was classified in terms of permafrost extent and ground ice content. The map shows mountain permafrost as sporadic or isolated discontinuous permafrost, rather than as a separate category.

This map can be found in the The National Atlas of Canada, 5th Edition (1978-95) published by Natural Resources Canada.

The map and descriptive information was taken from the National Atlas of Canada website http://atlas.gc.ca. © 2002. Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada with permission of Natural Resources Canada.

Geological Survey of Canada, Map 1691A, scale 1:1 000 000.] The map provides information on permafrost distribution and ground ice conditions in the Mackenzie Region of northwestern Canada. The data set comprises three data layers: maps of permafrost zones, rivers, and lakes. The map themes (layers) are in the ESRI Shapefile spatial data format (ArcView files). The permafrost map codes continuous, discontinuous, intermediate, sporadic, and isolated permafrost, and glaciers. Data are available via ftp

The Permafrost Map for Northwestern Canada (Mackenzie Region) is a digital version of the 1:1,000,000 map produced by Heginbottom and Radburn [Heginbottom, J.A. and Radburn, L.K. (compilers) 1992. Permafrost and ground ice conditions of northwestern Canada; Geological Survey of Canada, Map 1691A, scale 1:1 000 000.] The map provides information on permafrost distribution and ground ice conditions in the Mackenzie Region of northwestern Canada. The data set comprises three data layers: maps of permafrost zones, rivers, and lakes. The map themes (layers) are in the ESRI Shapefile spatial data format (ArcView files). The permafrost map codes continuous, discontinuous, intermediate, sporadic, and isolated permafrost, and glaciers. Data are available via ftp

Contained within the 5th Edition (1978 to 1995) of the National Atlas of Canada has a large that shows the extent of permafrost and abundance of ground ice; mapping units are based on physiographic regions. Point data on map give permafrost temperature and thickness for specific sites. The second, smaller, map shows the mean annual ground temperatures. Graphs show four shallow temperature profiles (to 25 metres depth), and four deep temperature profiles (to several hundred metres depth).

Data Sources:CanCoast Coastal Sensitivity Index 2090s, CanCoast Coastal Sensitivity Index 2020s, CanCoast Ground Ice, CanCoast Sea Level Change 2006 to 2099, CanCoast Sea Level Change 2006 to 2020, CanCoast Mean Wave Height with Sea Ice 1996-2005, CanCoast Mean Wave Height with Sea Ice 2090-2099Manson, G.K., Couture, N.J., and James, T.S., 2019. CanCoast Version 2.0: data and indices to describe the sensitivity of Canada's marine coasts to changing climate; Geological Survey of Canada, Open File 8551, 1 .zip file. https://doi.org/10.4095/314669Natural Resources of Canada:Permafrost Atlas of Canada: https://maps-cartes.services.geo.ca/server_serveur/services/NRCan/permafrost_atlas_of_canada_en/MapServer/WMSServer?request=GetCapabilities&service=WMS Esri:basemap: https://basemaps.arcgis.com/arcgis/rest/services/World_Basemap_v2/VectorTileServerArctic Sea Ice Extent: https://www.arcgis.com/home/item.html?id=d1fb8225058e4a0d96ead7b9a574a652

Open AccessThis project aimed to produce the first wall-to-wall estimate of C stocks in plants and soils of Canada at 250 m spatial resolution. This dataset contains the map with the soil organic carbon (SOC) in kg/m² for entire Canada in 30cm and 1m depth, and the uncertainty in SOC predictions. The SOC stock map was produced using 39,323 ground samples of soil organic carbon concentration (g/kg) distributed in 6,533 sites, 11,068 ground samples of bulk density (kg/dm3) distributed in 2,157 sites, long-term climate data, remote sensing observations and a machine learning model. The soil samples containing the x and y coordinates, depth and SOC (in g/kg) information were overlaid with the stacked covariates (soil forming factors) to compose the regression matrix. Random forest models were trained using a recursive feature elimination scheme and a cross-validation assessment. The best model was used for spatial prediction of SOC over Canada in intermediate depths between 0 and 1 m (0cm, 5cm, 15cm, 30cm, 60cm, 100cm). Afterwards, the SOC stock of each depth increment was computed using SOC concentration and bulk density maps, and corrected with coarse fragment information. The depth increments have been added to compose the 0-30cm and 0-1m depth intervals multiplied by rooting depths fraction to discount shallow soils. Water and ice/snow areas were removed using a mask based on the Land Cover of Canada map. Ground ice in permafrost areas was discounted according to ice abundance using the ground ice map of Canada. The SOC stock uncertainty map is the difference between the first and third quantiles of a quantile regression forest approach of SOC concentration and bulk density prediction (90% confidence interval).

The National Ecological Framework for Canada's "Permafrost by Ecodistrict” dataset contains tables that provide permafrost information within the ecodistrict framework polygon. It provides permafrost codes and their English and French language descriptions as well as information about the percentage of the polygon that the component occupies. Permafrost is defined as a state of the ground, whether soil or rock, that remains at or below a temperature of 0° C for long periods (NRC, Permafrost Subcommittee, 1988). The minimum period is from one winter, through the following summer, and into the next winter; however, most permafrost has existed for much longer. This formal definition considers only the temperature of the ground, and thus permafrost is a strictly thermal phenomenon, and not a material. At temperatures below 0° C , almost all of the soil moisture occurs in the form of ground ice. Ground ice usually exists at temperature close to its melting point and so is liable to melt if the ground warms. The extent and nature of permafrost, including estimated ice content and typical ground ice forms are derived from the map "Canada - Permafrost" (Natural Resources Canada, 1995).

The U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, the Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, the University of Copenhagen Institute of Geography, the European Soil Bureau, the University of Manchester Institute of Landscape Ecology, MTT Agrifood Research Finland, and the Agricultural Research Institute Iceland have shared data and expertise in order to develop the Northern and Mid Latitude Soil Database (Cryosol Working Group, 2001). This database was the source of data for the current product. The spatial coverage of the Northern and Mid Latitude Soil Database is the polar and mid-latitude regions of the northern hemisphere: Alaska, Canada, Conterminous United States, Eurasia (except Italy), Greenland, Iceland, Kazakstan, Mexico, Mongolia, Italy, and Svalbard. The Northern and Mid Latitude Soil Database represents the proportion (percentage) of polygon encompassed by the dominant soil or nonsoil. Soils include turbels, orthels, histels, histosols, mollisols, vertisols, aridisols, andisols, entisols, spodosols, inceptisols (and hapludolls), alfisols (cryalf and udalf), natric great groups, aqu-suborders, glaciers, and rocklands. Also included are data on the circumpolar distribution of gelisols (turbels, orthels, and histels), and the ice content (low, medium, or high) of circumpolar soil materials (from the International Permafrost Association, 1997). The resulting maps show the dominant soil of the spatial polygon unless the polygon is over 90 percent rock or ice. Data are in the U.S. soil classification system and includes the distribution of soil types (%) within a map unit (polygon). Data are available in ESRI shapefile format and include the same attribute values with the exception of Italy, which does not contain distribution values.

This entry provides access to surficial geology maps that have been published by the Geological survey of Canada. Two series of maps are available: "A Series" maps, published from 1909 to 2010 and "Canadian Geoscience Maps", published since 2010. Three types of CGM-series maps are available: 1)Surficial Geology: based on expert-knowledge full air photo interpretation (may include interpretive satellite imagery, Digital Elevation Models (DEM)), incorporating field data and ground truthing resulting from extensive, systematic fieldwork across the entire map area. Air photo interpretation includes map unit/deposit genesis, texture, thickness, structure, morphology, depositional or erosional environment, ice flow or meltwater direction, age/cross-cutting relationships, landscape evolution and associated geological features, complemented by additional overlay modifiers, points and linear features, selected from over 275 different geological elements in the Surficial Data Model. Wherever possible, legacy data is also added to the map. 2)Reconnaissance Surficial Geology: based on expert-knowledge full air photo interpretation (may include interpretive satellite imagery, DEMs), with limited or no fieldwork. Air photo interpretation includes map unit/deposit genesis, texture, thickness, structure, morphology, depositional or erosional environment, ice flow or meltwater direction, age/cross-cutting relationships, landscape evolution and associated geological features, complemented by additional overlay modifiers, points and linear features, selected from over 275 different geological elements in the Surficial Data Model. Wherever possible, legacy data is also added to the map. 3)Predictive Surficial Geology: derived from one or more methods of remote predictive mapping (RPM) using different satellite imagery, spectral characteristics of vegetation and surface moisture, machine processing, algorithms etc., DEMs, where raster data are converted to vector, with some expert-knowledge air photo interpretation (training areas or post-verification areas), varying degrees of non-systematic fieldwork, and the addition of any legacy data available. Each map is based on a version of the Geological Survey of Canada's Surficial Data Model (https://doi.org/10.4095/315021), thus providing an easily accessible national surficial geological framework and context in a standardized format to all users. "A series" maps were introduced in 1909 and replaced by CGM maps in 2010. The symbols and vocabulary used on those maps was not as standardized as they are in the CGM maps. Some "A series" maps were converted into, or redone, as CGM maps, Both versions are available whenever that is the case. In addition to CGM and "A series" maps, some surficial geology maps are published in the Open File series. Those maps are not displayed in this entry, but can be found and accessed using the NRCan publications website, GEOSCAN:(https://geoscan.nrcan.gc.ca).

This data set consists of a circumpolar map of dominant soil characteristics, with a scale of 1:10,000,000, covering the United States, Canada, Greenland, Iceland, northern Europe, Russia, Mongolia, and Kazakhstan. The map was created using the Northern and Mid Latitude Soil Database. The map is in ESRI Shapefile format, consisting of 11 regional areas.. Polygons have attributes that give the percentage polygon area that is a given soil type. The map shows the dominant soil of the spatial polygon unless the polygon is over 90 percent rock or ice. It also shows the proportion of polygon encompassed by the dominant soil or nonsoil. Soils include turbels, orthels, histels, histosols, mollisols, vertisols, aridisols, andisols, entisols, spodosols, inceptisols (and hapludolls), alfisols (cryalf and udalf), natric great groups, aqu-suborders, glaciers, and rocklands. Data are available via ftp.

Geology is based on field work by Peter R. Dawes in 1971, 1975 and 1978, the latter year with Allen P. Nutman. Compiled with photointerpretation 1988–89, with local revision based on field work in 2001. Apart from northernmost Kangerlussuaq (Inglefield Bredning), the coast was surveyed by boat with sporadic foot traverses, aided by helicopter in 1978 and 2001. Geology of Qaqujaarsuaq (Smithson Bjerge) is based on simplification of the 1:50 000 map by Allen P. Nutman (1984). GIS compilation: Katja T. Walentin, Samuel P. Jackson, Eva Willerslev and Mette S. Jørgensen. Cross sections: Martin Sønderholm; Smithson Bjerge section is based on Nutman (1984). Editorial handling: Thomas F. Kokfelt and Martin Sønderholm. Reviewed by John Grocott (Durham University, United Kingdom) and Marc R. St-Onge (Geological Survey of Canada). Detailed information on the map units is available in the GEUS Greenland Intrusive and Stratigraphic Database using the GU-codes shown in brackets in the legend (https://doi.org/10.22008/FK2/F9MBNJ). Information on mineral occurrences is available in the Greenland Mineral Resources Portal (https://www.greenmin.gl). Topographic base: Geodetic Institute maps at 1:200 000 from 1954 with major revision of the ice margin and glaciers based on 1:150 000 aerial photographs from 1985–1987 and Sentinel 2 satellite scenes from 2019. All heights are in metres. Additional lake heights are from the Danish Agency for Data Supply and Infrastructure (now the Danish Agency for Climate Data): Højdemodel Grønland (https://dataforsyningen.dk/data/4780, accessed September 2023). Ground exposed by ice retreat since initial compilation in 1988–1989 is identified in the legend. 1949 ice margins are from Geodetic Institute maps. Ice margins recorded during expeditions by Robert E. Peary in 1892 and Lauge Koch in 1922 are approximate. Ice altimetry and thickness are based on data from Morlighem et al. (2017), bathymetry is from Morlighem et al. (2022). Authorised place names are from Oqaasileriffik (The Language Secretariat of Greenland), with supplementary names from Laursen (1972). Projection: WGS 84 UTM Zone 20N. Copyright © Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland. References: Dawes, P.R. 1997: The Proterozoic Thule Supergroup, Greenland and Canada: history, lithostratigraphy and development. Geology of Greenland Survey Bulletin 174, 150 pp. https://doi.org/10.34194/ggub.v174.5025 Dawes, P.R. 2006: Explanatory notes to the Geological map of Greenland, 1:500 000, Thule, Sheet 5. Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland Map Series 2, 97 pp. + map sheet. https://doi.org/10.34194/geusm.v2.4614 Laursen, D. 1972: The place names of North Greenland. Meddelelser om Grønland 180(2), 443 pp. + 18 plates. Morlighem, M. et al. 2017: BedMachine v3 [Surface; Thickness]: Complete bed topography and ocean bathymetry mapping of Greenland from multibeam echo sounding combined with mass conservation. Geophysical Research Letters 44, 11051–11061. https://doi.org10.1002/2017GL074954 Morlighem, M. et al. 2022: IceBridge BedMachine Greenland, Version 5 [Bed]. NASA National Snow and Ice Data Center Distributed Active Archive Center. https://doi.org/10.5067/GMEVBWFLWA7X (accessed January 2024). Nutman, A.P. 1984: Precambrian gneisses and intrusive anorthosite of Smithson Bjerge, Thule district, North-West Greenland. Rapport Grønlands Geologiske Undersøgelse 119, 31 pp. + plate. https://doi:10.34194/rapggu.v119.7849 Thomassen, B. & Krebs, J.D. 2004: Mineral exploration of selected targets in the Qaanaaq region, North-West Greenland: follow-up on Qaanaaq 2001. Danmarks og Grønlands Geologiske Undersøgelse Rapport 2004/42, 64 pp. https://doi.org/10.22008/gpub/25622 Thomassen, B., Krebs, J.D. & Dawes, P.R. 2002: Qaanaaq 2001: mineral exploration in the Olrik Fjord – Kap Alexander region, North-West Greenland. Danmarks og Grønlands Geologiske Undersøgelse Rapport 2002/86, 72 pp. + map. https://doi.org/10.22008/gpub/18491

A joint venture involving the National Atlas programs in Canada (Natural Resources Canada), Mexico (Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía), and the United States (U.S. Geological Survey), as well as the North American Commission for Environmental Cooperation, has led to the release (June 2004) of several new products: an updated paper map of North America, and its associated geospatial data sets and their metadata. These data sets are available online from each of the partner countries for download.The North American Atlas data are standardized geospatial data sets at 1:10,000,000 scale. A variety of basic data layers (e.g., roads, railroads, populated places, political boundaries, hydrography, bathymetry, sea ice and glaciers) have been integrated so that their relative positions are correct. This collection of data sets forms a base with which other North American thematic data may be integrated. Any data outside of Canada, Mexico, and the United States of America included in the North American Atlas data sets is strictly to complete the context of the data.The North American Atlas - Glaciers data set shows areas of permanent ice found on the North America landmass including Greenland and shows areas of land found within glaciers. No distinction is made between major glaciers, ice fields, and the Greenland ice cap. The only permanent ice shown on land areas outside of North America and Greenland is in Iceland. This is a revised version of the 2004 data set. Files Download

Geology is based on field work by Peter R. Dawes in 1971, 1975 and 1978. Compiled with photointerpretation 1988–89, with local revision based on field work in 2001. The coast was surveyed by boat with sporadic foot traverses, aided by helicopter in 1978 and 2001. GIS compilation: Katja T. Walentin, Samuel P. Jackson, Eva Willerslev and Mette S. Jørgensen. Cross section: Martin Sønderholm. Editorial handling: Thomas F. Kokfelt and Martin Sønderholm. Reviewed by John Grocott (Durham University, United Kingdom) and Marc R. St-Onge (Geological Survey of Canada). Detailed information on the map units is available in the GEUS Greenland Intrusive and Stratigraphic Database using the GU-codes shown in brackets in the legend (https://doi.org/10.22008/FK2/F9MBNJ). Information on mineral occurrences is available in the Greenland Mineral Resources Portal (https://www.greenmin.gl). Topographic base: Geodetic Institute maps at 1:200 000 from 1954 with major revision of the ice margin and glaciers based on 1:150 000 aerial photographs from 1985–1987 and Sentinel 2 satellite scenes from 2019. All heights are in metres. Additional lake heights are from the Danish Agency for Data Supply and Infrastructure (now the Danish Agency for Climate Data): Højdemodel Grønland (https://dataforsyningen.dk/data/4780, accessed September 2023). Ground exposed by ice retreat since initial compilation in 1988–1989 is identified in the legend. 1949 ice margins are from Geodetic Institute maps. Ice margins recorded during expeditions by Robert E. Peary in 1892 and Lauge Koch in 1922 are approximate. Ice altimetry and thickness are based on data from Morlighem et al. (2017), bathymetry is from Morlighem et al. (2022). Landslides are modified from GEUS internal data, for methodology see Svennevig (2019). Authorised place names are from Oqaasileriffik (The Language Secretariat of Greenland), with supplementary names from Laursen (1972). Projection: WGS 84 UTM Zone 20N. Copyright © Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland. References: Dawes, P.R. 1997: The Proterozoic Thule Supergroup, Greenland and Canada: history, lithostratigraphy and development. Geology of Greenland Survey Bulletin 174, 150 pp. https://doi.org/10.34194/ggub.v174.5025 Dawes, P.R. 2006: Explanatory notes to the Geological map of Greenland, 1:500 000, Thule, Sheet 5. Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland Map Series 2, 97 pp. + map sheet. https://doi.org/10.34194/geusm.v2.4614 Laursen, D. 1972: The place names of North Greenland. Meddelelser om Grønland 180(2), 443 pp. + 18 plates. Morlighem, M. et al. 2017: BedMachine v3 [Surface; Thickness]: Complete bed topography and ocean bathymetry mapping of Greenlandfrom multibeam echo sounding combined with mass conservation. Geophysical Research Letters 44, 11051–11061. https://doi.org/10.1002/2017GL074954 Morlighem, M. et al. 2022: IceBridge BedMachine Greenland, Version 5 [Bed]. NASA National Snow and Ice Data Center Distributed Active Archive Center. https://doi.org/10.5067/GMEVBWFLWA7X (accessed January 2024). Svennevig, K. 2019: Preliminary landslide mapping in Greenland. Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland Bulletin 43,e2019430207. https://doi.org/10.34194/GEUSB-201943-02-07 Thomassen, B., Krebs, J.D. & Dawes, P.R. 2002: Qaanaaq 2001: mineral exploration in the Olrik Fjord – Kap Alexander region, North-West Greenland. Danmarks og Grønlands Geologiske Undersøgelse Rapport 2002/86, 72 pp. + map. https://doi.org/10.22008/gpub/18491

Contained within the Atlas of Canada Poster Map Series, is a poster showing the different types of land cover across the Country. The map is primarily based on AVHRR (Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer) data, offering very precise detail. The land cover image contains 31 land cover classes. These have been grouped into 9 large land cover classes from coniferous forest to snow and ice. There are photos showing visually what each of these 9 land cover areas look like.