Europe's Jewish population in 1939 was around 9.5 million people, and it is estimated that six million of these were ultimately killed by 1945. The persecution of German Jews escalated during the interwar period, particularly after Hitler's ascent to power in 1933, and again after Kristallnacht in 1938. However, the scale of this increased drastically following the German invasions of Poland in 1939 and the USSR in 1941, when Germany annexed regions with some of the largest Jewish populations in Europe. Extermination Camps As part of the "Final Solution to the Jewish Question", the Nazi occupiers established six extermination camps in present-day Poland; these were Auschwitz-Birkenau, Belzec, Chelmno, Majdanek***, Sobibor, and Treblinka. Prisoners, mostly Jews, were transported from all over Europe to these camps. Upon arrival, the majority of victims were sent directly to purpose-built chambers or vans, where they were murdered with carbon monoxide or Zyklon B gas. A relatively small number of prisoners were also forced to dispose of the victims' bodies, which often included their own family members, friends, or persons known to them. Most of the deceased were incinerated, and many of the camp records were destroyed; this means that precise figures for the number of deaths in extermination camps will never be known. It has been estimated that at least 2.7 million Jews were murdered in these six camps; over two thirds of these were killed at Auschwitz or Treblinka. Einsatzgruppen After extermination camps, the most common method of murder was through mass shootings. The majority of these shootings were not carried out by regular soldiers, but specialized task forces known as "Einsatzgruppen". Each group was just a few hundred men each, but they were responsible for some of the largest individual acts of genocide in the war. The largest of these took place at Babi Yar, near Kyiv in 1941, where almost 35,000 victims were beaten, humiliated, and then shot over a two day period. The Einsatzgruppen were most active in the annexed Soviet territories (although additional regiments were active in Poland and the Balkans), and their ranks were often bolstered by local volunteers. It has been estimated that Einsatzgruppen were responsible for the genocide of more than two million people in fewer than six years.

The Holocaust was the systematic extermination of Europe's Jewish population in the Second World War, during which time, up to six million Jews were murdered as part of Nazi Germany's "Final Solution to the Jewish Question". In the context of the Second World War, the term "Holocaust" is traditionally used to reference the genocide of Europe's Jews, although this coincided with the Nazi regime's genocide and ethnic cleansing of an additional eleven million people deemed "undesirable" due to their ethnicity, beliefs, disability or sexuality (among others). During the Holocaust, Poland's Jewish population suffered the largest number of fatalities, with approximately three million deaths. Additionally, at least one million Jews were murdered in the Soviet Union, while Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, the Netherlands and Yugoslavia also lost the majority of their respective pre-war Jewish populations. The Holocaust in Poland In the interwar period, Europe's Jewish population was concentrated in the east, with roughly one third living in Poland; this can be traced back to the Middle Ages, when thousands of Jews flocked to Eastern Europe to escape persecution. At the outbreak of the Second World War, it is estimated that there were 3.4 million Jews living in Poland, which was approximately ten percent of the total population. Following the German invasion of Poland, Nazi authorities then segregated Jews in ghettos across most large towns and cities, and expanded their network of concentration camps throughout the country. In the ghettos, civilians were deprived of food, and hundreds of thousands died due to disease and starvation; while prison labor was implemented under extreme conditions in concentration camps to fuel the German war effort. In Poland, six extermination camps were also operational between December 1941 and January 1945, which saw the mass extermination of approximately 2.7 million people over the next three years (including many non-Poles, imported from other regions of Europe). While concentration camps housed prisoners of all backgrounds, extermination camps were purpose-built for the elimination of the Jewish race, and over 90% of their victims were Jewish. The majority of the victims in these extermination camps were executed by poison gas, although disease, starvation and overworking were also common causes of death. In addition to the camps and ghettos, SS death squads (Einsatzgruppen) and local collaborators also committed widespread atrocities across Eastern Europe. While the majority of these atrocities took place in the Balkan, Baltic and Soviet regions, they were still prevalent in Poland (particularly during the liquidation of the ghettos), and the Einsatzgruppen alone are estimated to have killed up to 1.3 million Jews throughout the Holocaust. By early 1945, Soviet forces had largely expelled the German armies from Poland and liberated the concentration and extermination camps; by this time, Poland had lost roughly ninety percent of its pre-war Jewish population, and suffered approximately three million further civilian and military deaths. By 1991, Poland's Jewish population was estimated to be just 15 thousand people, while there were fewer than two thousand Jews recorded as living in Poland in 2018.

Attitude to Jews and other minorities. Topics: Attitude to West Germans/East Germans, gipsies, Arabs, Vietnamese, Turks, Poles, Africans and Jews as neighbors; provocative behavior by these population groups; judgement on protection of foreigners by authorities; judgement on the influence of large concerns, trade unions, media, banks, Americans, Japanese, churches and Jews on society; assessment of antisemitism in Germany and expected development in the next few years; attitude to a Jewish candidate for Federal President; judgement on the influence of Jews on world events; significance of the term Holocaust as well as Auschwitz, Dachau, Treblinka; Auschwitz as lie or truth; knowledge about the number of Jews killed in the Holocaust as well as population groups persecuted by the Nazis; knowledge about the star of David; attitude to a Holocaust Memorial; importance of knowledge about National Socialist perscution of Jews for Germans; perceived exploitation of the Holocaust for personal intents by Jews; attitude to considering finished the topic of persecution of Jews in the past; religious denomination; party preference; interest in politics; union membership; behavior at the polls in the last Federal Parliament election. Einstellung zu Juden und anderen Minderheiten. Themen: Einstellung zu Westdeutschen/Ostdeutschen, Zigeunern, Arabern, Vietnamesen, Türken, Polen, Afrikanern und Juden als Nachbarn; provokantes Verhalten dieser Bevölkerungsgruppen; Beurteilung des Schutzes der Ausländer durch die Behörden; Beurteilung des Einflusses von Großunternehmen, Gewerkschaften, Medien, Banken, Amerikanern, Japanern, Kirchen und Juden auf die Gesellschaft; Einschätzung des Antisemitismus in Deutschland und erwartete Entwicklung in den nächsten Jahren; Einstellung zu einem jüdischen Bundespräsidentenkandidat; Beurteilung des Einflusses der Juden auf die Weltgeschehnisse; Bedeutung des Begriffs Holocaust sowie Auschwitz, Dachau, Treblinka; Auschwitz als Lüge oder Wahrheit; Kenntnis der Zahl der im Holocaust getöteten Juden sowie der durch die Nazis verfolgten Bevölkerungsgruppen; Kenntnis des Judensterns; Einstellung zu einer Holocaust-Gedenkstätte; Wichtigkeit des Wissens über die nationalsozialistische Judenverfolgung für die Deutschen; empfundenes Ausnutzen des Holocaust für eigene Absichten der Juden; Einstellung zum Setzen eines Schlußstrichs unter die Vergangenheit der Judenverfolgung; Konfession; Parteipräferenz (Sonntagsfrage); Politikinteresse; Gewerkschaftsmitgliedschaft; Wahlverhalten bei der letzten Bundestagswahl. Demographie: Alter; Geschlecht; Familienstand; Kinderzahl; Alter der Kinder (klassiert); Schulbildung; Beruf; Berufstätigkeit; Einkommen; Haushaltseinkommen; Einkommensbezieher im Haushalt; Haushaltsgröße; Haushaltszusammensetzung; Befragter ist Haushaltsvorstand; Charakteristika des Haushaltsvorstands; Ost-West; Ortsgröße; Bundesland.

This dataset is about books and is filtered where the book subjects is Holocaust victims, featuring 9 columns including author, BNB id, book, book publisher, and book subjects. The preview is ordered by publication date (descending).

Between 1941 and early 1945, over 1.3 million people were deported to the Auschwitz concentration camp complex; approximately 1.1 million of these deportees were Jewish, and one million Jews were murdered. Auschwitz was the largest of six extermination camps constructed by the Nazi regime in Poland, as part of their "Final Solution to the Jewish Question", which sought to exterminate Europe's Jewish population.

The Holocaust in Hungary Of the 1.1 million Jews sent to Auschwitz, the most common country of origin was Hungary. Hungary had a sizeable Jewish population of around 445,000 people in 1930, but Hungary's territory grew significantly after it annexed parts of Slovakia, Romania, Ukraine, and Yugoslavia in the late-1930s, and the total Jewish population (including Christians with Jewish heritage) in the 1941 census was approximately 825,000. Compared to the Germans, Hungary's treatment of the Jews throughout the war had been much less restrictive, and its prime minister opposed deportations to concentration camps. German invasion and increasing number of deportations This changed, however, in March 1944; as the Axis forces were being pushed west out of Soviet territory; Germany then invaded Hungary to prevent them from negotiating a peace with the Allies. Thereafter, a puppet government was installed and authorities, under the leadership of Adolf Eichmann, began to round up and deport Jews to Poland. While the Nazi extermination of Jews began on a large scale in 1941, the majority of Hungary's victims were deported and murdered over an eight week period, between May and July 1944. 430,000 Jews were deported from Hungary to Auschwitz in this time; it is estimated that around 20 percent of these were selected for labor, and the remaining 80 percent were sent directly to the gas chambers. Arrivals from Hungary were so rapid that the crematoriums could not keep up with the rate of murder, and additional mass graves had to be dug while the number of trains was reduced. Eventually, as the Axis position deteriorated, Hungarian authorities ceased deportations under mounting pressure from the Allies in early July. Exact figures for Hungary's death toll in the Holocaust remain elusive, although it is estimated that over 560,000 Jews were killed from within Hungary's wartime borders (270,000 from pre-war territories), with 434,000 of these deaths taking place between May and July 1944, the majority of which at Auschwitz.

In the EHRI-3 project, we are investigating tools and methods that historical researchers and scholars can use to better understand, visualise, and interpret the material held by our partner archives. This dataset accompanies a tutorial exploring a technique called topic modelling in the context of a Holocaust-related historical collection.

We were on the lookout for datasets that would be easily accessible and, for convenience, predominantly in English. One such dataset was the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum’s (USHMM) extensive collection of oral history testimonies, for which there are a considerable number of textual transcripts. The museum’s total collection consists of over 80,703 testimonies, 41,695 of which are available in English, with 2,894 of them listing a transcript.

Since there is not yet a ready-to-download dataset that includes these transcripts, we had to construct our own. Using a web scraping tool, we managed to create a list of the links pointing to the metadata (including transcripts) of the testimonies that were of interest to us. After obtaining the transcript and other metadata of each of these testimonies, we were able to create our dataset and curate it to remove any unwanted entries. For example, we made sure to remove entries with restrictions on access or use. We also removed entries with transcripts that consisted only of some automatically generated headers and entries which turned out to be in languages other than English. The remaining 1,873 transcripts form the corpus of this tutorial — a small, but still decently sized dataset.

The process that we followed to put together this dataset is detailed in the Jupyter Notebook accompanying this post, which can be found in this Github repository.

Credits:

The transcripts that form the corpus in this tutorial were obtained through the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (USHMM).

This database consists of a list of online memory practices related to the Holocaust.

This dataset is about books and is filtered where the book is Zombie holocaust : how the living dead devoured pop culture. It has 7 columns such as author, BNB id, book, book publisher, and ISBN. The data is ordered by publication date (descending).

In dit interview vertelt de geïnterviewde over zijn leven als kind gedurende de bezetting in Amsterdam. Hij vertelt over de propaganda tegen de Joden, hun vervolging en deportatie. Hij noemt een geval waarbij een Joodse vrouw met bed en al uit huis gehaald werd. Daarnaast bespreekt hij de incidenten rond de Februaristaking van 1941. Ook vertelt hij kort wat over het pulsen en opnieuw bewonen van de Joodse woningen.In this interview the interviewee remembers life and daily routine as a school child during the time of the German occupation of the Netherlands. He talks about the propaganda against Jews, their persecution and deportation from Amsterdam. In addition, he discusses the reasons and incidents around the February Strike of 1941. Date Submitted: 2010-04-01 Van dit interview zijn eveneens uitgebreide samenvattingen met tijd-codes beschikbaar in zowel het Nederlands als Engels. Zie de Inleiding voor een snel overzicht van de gehele collectie en de contactgegevens. Er zijn tevens verschillende bestanden bijgevoegd betreffende het project en dit specifieke interview.Besides the transcript there is an extensive summary available of the interview in both Dutch and English with time-codes inserted. See the Introduction for a quick overview of the entire collection and the contact details. There are also several documents and reports available concerning the project and this particular interview. Bystander Memories bevat in totaal 59 interviews met Nederlandse niet-joodse ooggetuigen van de jodenvervolging. Deze interviews vormen een onderdeel van een project uitgevoerd door het United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Oral History Department, waar het valt onder de 'Europe Interview Projects: Interviews with Witnesses, Collaborators, and Perpetrators'. Naast de Nederlandse interviews zijn er ook interviews gemaakt in het (Wit)Russisch, Grieks, Macedonisch, Pools, Oekraiens, Servisch, Ests, Lets, Litouws, Moldavisch, Frans, Duits, Roemeens. De aantallen interviews per land variëren sterk. Het project is in 1996 begonnen en loopt nog steeds, zie website USHMM: http://www.ushmm.org/research/collections/oralhistory/Since 1996, United States Holocaust memorial Museum's (USHMM) Department of Oral History has conducted a documentation project to collect the testimonies of individuals who were not direct victims of the Holocaust. These interviews are with witnesses, collaborators, and perpetrators. In ten years, over 600 interviews have been conducted in the following European countries: Czech Republic, Estonia, France, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, The Netherlands, Poland, Romania, the Ukraine, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Serbia. These interviews serve not only as corroboration of what Jewish victims and survivors report in their interviews and memoirs, they also create a broader understanding of the tragic events of World War II by adding the perspectives of non-Jewish populations. The Dutch interviews are accessible at DANS for scientific research only.

This dataset is about book subjects and is filtered where the books is Forgotten crimes : the Holocaust and people with disabilities, featuring 10 columns including authors, average publication date, book publishers, book subject, and books. The preview is ordered by number of books (descending).

### Institute for the Study of Contemporary Antisemitism (ISCA) at Indiana University Dataset on bias against Asians, Blacks, Jews, Latines, and Muslims

The ISCA project compiled this dataset using an annotation portal, which was used to label tweets as either biased or non-biased, among other labels. Note that the annotation was done on live data, including images and context, such as threads. The original data comes from annotationportal.com. They include representative samples of live tweets from the years 2020 and 2021 with the keywords "Asians, Blacks, Jews, Latinos, and Muslims".

A random sample of 600 tweets per year was drawn for each of the keywords. This includes retweets. Due to a sampling error, the sample for the year 2021 for the keyword "Jews" has only 453 tweets from 2021 and 147 from the first eight months of 2022 and it includes some tweets from the query with the keyword "Israel." The tweets were divided into six samples of 100 tweets, which were then annotated by three to seven students in the class "Researching White Supremacism and Antisemitism on Social Media" taught by Gunther Jikeli, Elisha S. Breton, and Seth Moller at Indiana University in the fall of 2022, see this report. Annotators used a scale from 1 to 5 (confident not biased, probably not biased, don't know, probably biased, confident biased). The definitions of bias against each minority group used for annotation are also included in the report.

If a tweet called out or denounced bias against the minority in question, it was labeled as "calling out bias."

The labels of whether a tweet is biased or calls out bias are based on a 75% majority vote. We considered "probably biased" and "confident biased" as biased and "confident not biased," "probably not biased," and "don't know" as not biased.

The types of stereotypes vary widely across the different categories of prejudice. While about a third of all biased tweets were classified as "hate" against the minority, the stereotypes in the tweets often matched common stereotypes about the minority. Asians were blamed for the Covid pandemic. Blacks were seen as inferior and associated with crime. Jews were seen as powerful and held collectively responsible for the actions of the State of Israel. Some tweets denied the Holocaust. Hispanics/Latines were portrayed as being in the country illegally and as "invaders," in addition to stereotypical accusations of being lazy, stupid, or having too many children. Muslims, on the other hand, were often collectively blamed for terrorism and violence, though often in conversations about Muslims in India.

# Content:

This dataset contains 5880 tweets that cover a wide range of topics common in conversations about Asians, Blacks, Jews, Latines, and Muslims. 357 tweets (6.1 %) are labeled as biased and 5523 (93.9 %) are labeled as not biased. 1365 tweets (23.2 %) are labeled as calling out or denouncing bias.

1180 out of 5880 tweets (20.1 %) contain the keyword "Asians," 590 were posted in 2020 and 590 in 2021. 39 tweets (3.3 %) are biased against Asian people. 370 tweets (31,4 %) call out bias against Asians.

1160 out of 5880 tweets (19.7%) contain the keyword "Blacks," 578 were posted in 2020 and 582 in 2021. 101 tweets (8.7 %) are biased against Black people. 334 tweets (28.8 %) call out bias against Blacks.

1189 out of 5880 tweets (20.2 %) contain the keyword "Jews," 592 were posted in 2020, 451 in 2021, and ––as mentioned above––146 tweets from 2022. 83 tweets (7 %) are biased against Jewish people. 220 tweets (18.5 %) call out bias against Jews.

1169 out of 5880 tweets (19.9 %) contain the keyword "Latinos," 584 were posted in 2020 and 585 in 2021. 29 tweets (2.5 %) are biased against Latines. 181 tweets (15.5 %) call out bias against Latines.

1182 out of 5880 tweets (20.1 %) contain the keyword "Muslims," 593 were posted in 2020 and 589 in 2021. 105 tweets (8.9 %) are biased against Muslims. 260 tweets (22 %) call out bias against Muslims.

# File Description:

The dataset is provided in a csv file format, with each row representing a single message, including replies, quotes, and retweets. The file contains the following columns:

'TweetID': Represents the tweet ID.

'Username': Represents the username who published the tweet (if it is a retweet, it will be the user who retweetet the original tweet.

'Text': Represents the full text of the tweet (not pre-processed).

'CreateDate': Represents the date the tweet was created.

'Biased': Represents the labeled by our annotators if the tweet is biased (1) or not (0).

'Calling_Out': Represents the label by our annotators if the tweet is calling out bias against minority groups (1) or not (0).

'Keyword': Represents the keyword that was used in the query. The keyword can be in the text, including mentioned names, or the username.

# Licences

Data is published under the terms of the "Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International" licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0)

# Acknowledgements

We are grateful for the technical collaboration with Indiana University's Observatory on Social Media (OSoMe). We thank all class participants for the annotations and contributions, including Kate Baba, Eleni Ballis, Garrett Banuelos, Savannah Benjamin, Luke Bianco, Zoe Bogan, Elisha S. Breton, Aidan Calderaro, Anaye Caldron, Olivia Cozzi, Daj Crisler, Jenna Eidson, Ella Fanning, Victoria Ford, Jess Gruettner, Ronan Hancock, Isabel Hawes, Brennan Hensler, Kyra Horton, Maxwell Idczak, Sanjana Iyer, Jacob Joffe, Katie Johnson, Allison Jones, Kassidy Keltner, Sophia Knoll, Jillian Kolesky, Emily Lowrey, Rachael Morara, Benjamin Nadolne, Rachel Neglia, Seungmin Oh, Kirsten Pecsenye, Sophia Perkovich, Joey Philpott, Katelin Ray, Kaleb Samuels, Chloe Sherman, Rachel Weber, Molly Winkeljohn, Ally Wolfgang, Rowan Wolke, Michael Wong, Jane Woods, Kaleb Woodworth, and Aurora Young.

This work used Jetstream2 at Indiana University through allocation HUM200003 from the Advanced Cyberinfrastructure Coordination Ecosystem: Services & Support (ACCESS) program, which is supported by National Science Foundation grants #2138259, #2138286, #2138307, #2137603, and #2138296.

This dataset is about book subjects and is filtered where the books includes Zombie holocaust : how the living dead devoured pop culture, featuring 10 columns including authors, average publication date, book publishers, book subject, and books. The preview is ordered by number of books (descending).

Much historical material has been published on the topic of the Holocaust in Lithuania. The general researched history of the Holocaust in Lithuania includes the activity of the German Security Police and SD operational and special squads, Lithuanians’ collaboration with the Nazis, and the history of the ghettos, but less attention is paid to the Holocaust in the periphery. Until now, there hasn't been a publication which contains both information about the mass murders of Jews and the geographical locations of those mass murders. Several antecedents are noteworthy, including the two-volume “Mass Murder in Lithuania, 1941-1944: A Collection of Documents” published in 1963 and 1973, and Josif Levinson's book “The Book of Sorrow,” published in 1997, which contains a collection of photographs of about 190 sites and a list of Lithuanian cities and towns where Jews lived as well as information about where they were murdered.

In 2010 the Vilna Gaon State Jewish Museum and the Austrian Verein Gedenkdienst initiated the project “Holocaust Atlas of Lithuania”, aimed at education, spreading of information, and tourism. The atlas consists of structured and concentrated information on all the mass murder sites in Lithuania. It is the first publication with such comprehensive information on each murder site. Until now, similar information was dispersed throughout publications or still unpublished and available only in archives.

This work is an important contribution towards revealing the development of the Holocaust in Lithuania and will contribute to the objective elucidation and assessment of these events and provide a principled understanding of what took place. This is an important educational work by us, the Vilna Gaon State Jewish Museum workers.

De geïnterviewde, geboren in Gouda, groeide op in een niet religieus gezin maar ontwikkelde zich in de beginjaren van de oorlog, als een fanatieke, bevlogen Jehova’s getuige. Ze werd zich al voor de oorlog bewust van het feit dat de Joden groot gevaar liepen. Ze aanvaardde het lijden. Samen met haar geloofsgenoot heeft ze de verschillende kampen in Nederland en Duitsland goed doorstaan. Ze koesterde geen enkele wrok tegen haar vijanden en maakte van de kampen een werkgebied om mensen het evangelie te verkondigen. Haar verhaal geeft inzicht in het kampleven van de vrouwen en de omstandigheden van Jehova’s Getuigen gedurende de oorlog.The interviewee was born in Gouda and grew up in a non-religious family, but in the first years of the war she became an enthusiastic, fanatic, Jehova’s Witness. She realised even before the war that the Jews were about to be exterminated. She accepted suffering. Together with her fellow believers she endured several concentration camps in the Netherlands and Germany. She doesn’t resent her enemies, and turned the camps into an opportunity to do missionary work, to convert people. Her story provides insight into what camp life was like for women, and what the situation was like for Jehova’s Witnesses during the war. Date Submitted: 2010-04-01 Van dit interview zijn eveneens uitgebreide samenvattingen met tijd-codes beschikbaar in zowel het Nederlands als Engels. Zie de Inleiding voor een snel overzicht van de gehele collectie en de contactgegevens. Er zijn tevens verschillende bestanden bijgevoegd betreffende het project en dit specifieke interview.Besides the transcript there is an extensive summary available of the interview in both Dutch and English with time-codes inserted. See the Introduction for a quick overview of the entire collection and the contact details. There are also several documents and reports available concerning the project and this particular interview. Bystander Memories bevat in totaal 59 interviews met Nederlandse niet-joodse ooggetuigen van de jodenvervolging. Deze interviews vormen een onderdeel van een project uitgevoerd door het United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Oral History Department, waar het valt onder de 'Europe Interview Projects: Interviews with Witnesses, Collaborators, and Perpetrators'. Naast de Nederlandse interviews zijn er ook interviews gemaakt in het (Wit)Russisch, Grieks, Macedonisch, Pools, Oekraiens, Servisch, Ests, Lets, Litouws, Moldavisch, Frans, Duits, Roemeens. De aantallen interviews per land variëren sterk. Het project is in 1996 begonnen en loopt nog steeds, zie website USHMM: http://www.ushmm.org/research/collections/oralhistory/Since 1996, United States Holocaust memorial Museum's (USHMM) Department of Oral History has conducted a documentation project to collect the testimonies of individuals who were not direct victims of the Holocaust. These interviews are with witnesses, collaborators, and perpetrators. In ten years, over 600 interviews have been conducted in the following European countries: Czech Republic, Estonia, France, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, The Netherlands, Poland, Romania, the Ukraine, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Serbia. These interviews serve not only as corroboration of what Jewish victims and survivors report in their interviews and memoirs, they also create a broader understanding of the tragic events of World War II by adding the perspectives of non-Jewish populations. The Dutch interviews are accessible at DANS for scientific research only.

De geïnterviewde was getrouwd met een Joodse vrouw en vertelt over de arrestatie van zijn schoonfamilie die ondergedoken waren. Hij vertelt dat ze de mogelijkheid hadden om te ontsnappen uit de Hollandse Schouwburg, maar dit niet durfden. Na hun deportatie naar respectievelijk Westerbork en Vught is er nog enige correspondentie geweest die de geïnterviewde voor leest. Hij vertelt verder over arrestaties die hij gezien heeft en over de onderduikers aan wie hij en zijn vrouw onderdak boden.This interviewee was married to a Jewish woman and describes the arrest of his family-in-law who were in hiding. He explains that they had the opportunity to escape from the Hollandse Schouwburg [Dutch Theatre], but were afraid to do this. After their deportation to the Westerbork and Vught concentration camps respectively, there was some more correspondence, which the interviewee reads aloud. He tells us about other arrests he saw and about the people for whom he and his wife provided a hiding place. Date Submitted: 2010-04-01 Van dit interview zijn eveneens uitgebreide samenvattingen met tijd-codes beschikbaar in zowel het Nederlands als Engels. Zie de Inleiding voor een snel overzicht van de gehele collectie en de contactgegevens. Er zijn tevens verschillende bestanden bijgevoegd betreffende het project en dit specifieke interview.Besides the transcript there is an extensive summary available of the interview in both Dutch and English with time-codes inserted. See the Introduction for a quick overview of the entire collection and the contact details. There are also several documents and reports available concerning the project and this particular interview. Bystander Memories bevat in totaal 59 interviews met Nederlandse niet-joodse ooggetuigen van de jodenvervolging. Deze interviews vormen een onderdeel van een project uitgevoerd door het United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Oral History Department, waar het valt onder de 'Europe Interview Projects: Interviews with Witnesses, Collaborators, and Perpetrators'. Naast de Nederlandse interviews zijn er ook interviews gemaakt in het (Wit)Russisch, Grieks, Macedonisch, Pools, Oekraiens, Servisch, Ests, Lets, Litouws, Moldavisch, Frans, Duits, Roemeens. De aantallen interviews per land variëren sterk. Het project is in 1996 begonnen en loopt nog steeds, zie website USHMM: http://www.ushmm.org/research/collections/oralhistory/Since 1996, United States Holocaust memorial Museum's (USHMM) Department of Oral History has conducted a documentation project to collect the testimonies of individuals who were not direct victims of the Holocaust. These interviews are with witnesses, collaborators, and perpetrators. In ten years, over 600 interviews have been conducted in the following European countries: Czech Republic, Estonia, France, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, The Netherlands, Poland, Romania, the Ukraine, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Serbia. These interviews serve not only as corroboration of what Jewish victims and survivors report in their interviews and memoirs, they also create a broader understanding of the tragic events of World War II by adding the perspectives of non-Jewish populations. The Dutch interviews are accessible at DANS for scientific research only.

Deze reeks interviews geven de herinneringen weer van Rotterdamse ooggetuigen aan de jodenvervolging.Zie verder de scriptie van Anouk Eigenraam, Herinneringen van Rotterdamse ooggetuigen aan de jodenvervolging 1942 - 1945 Bystander Memories bevat in totaal 59 interviews met Nederlandse niet-joodse ooggetuigen van de jodenvervolging. Deze interviews vormen een onderdeel van een project uitgevoerd door het United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Oral History Department, waar het valt onder de 'Europe Interview Projects: Interviews with Witnesses, Collaborators, and Perpetrators'. Naast de Nederlandse interviews zijn er ook interviews gemaakt in het (Wit)Russisch, Grieks, Macedonisch, Pools, Oekraiens, Servisch, Ests, Lets, Litouws, Moldavisch, Frans, Duits, Roemeens. De aantallen interviews per land variëren sterk. Het project is in 1996 begonnen en loopt nog steeds, zie website USHMM: http://www.ushmm.org/research/collections/oralhistory/Since 1996, United States Holocaust memorial Museum's (USHMM) Department of Oral History has conducted a documentation project to collect the testimonies of individuals who were not direct victims of the Holocaust. These interviews are with witnesses, collaborators, and perpetrators. In ten years, over 600 interviews have been conducted in the following European countries: Czech Republic, Estonia, France, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, The Netherlands, Poland, Romania, the Ukraine, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Serbia. These interviews serve not only as corroboration of what Jewish victims and survivors report in their interviews and memoirs, they also create a broader understanding of the tragic events of World War II by adding the perspectives of non-Jewish populations. The Dutch interviews are accessible at DANS for scientific research only.

We have run a series of studies that include two (ethical) paradigms of Milgram's obedience studies. The first, which takes place online, asks participants to assign increasingly negative adjectives to increasingly positive groups of people. Using this paradigm, we have used the following manipulations: 'Peers Rebel' feedback, identification with the experimenter by gender, identification with science by participants' background, identification with science by using the 'three things' manipulation, and identification with the 'learner' by reminding participants of shared priviledge. In the second paradigm, we use virtual reality to investigate helping behaviour and stress levels of the participants in a Milgram-like environment.Since the end of the second world war, western social thought has been haunted by the shadow of the holocaust. In 1961 two events came together which have shaped our understanding of the human capacity for inhumanity. The first was the trial of Adolf Eichmann in Jerusalem and Hannah Arendt's subsequent book about Eichmann. She argued that, far from being a monster, what was truly terrifying about him was his ordinariness. She also argued that what made him capable of murdering millions was 'sheer inattention': Eichmann concentrated so hard on the details of his job that he lost sight of the consequences. This was summarised in her phrase 'the banality of evil'. While the trial was in progress, Stanley Milgram was conducting his famous 'obedience' studies in Yale. Participants were asked to administer an escalating series of electric shocks to a learner each time he made an error in a learning experiment (actually the shocks were not real and the learner was a confederate of the experimenter). To his surprise, many participants went all the way to 450v. This seemed to provide experimental rigour to the notion that ordinary people can act in extraordinarily harmful ways. What is more, Milgram took on board Arendt's explanation of toxic obedience. In the face of authority, he argued, people enter an agentic state whereby they focus exclusively on how well they follow instructions. This notion of the perpetrator as an 'inattentive bureaucrat' has come to dominate understanding of atrocity in psychology, across different academic disciplines and even in the public domain. It is regularly invoked by the media and commentators every time we see instances of toxic behaviour. However, despite its dominance, the explanation is deeply flawed and cannot explain variations in levels of obedience, including within Milgram's own studies. Based on a reanalysis of these studiesand also on historical evidence, we have argued that perpetrators are 'engaged followers' rather than 'inattentive bureaucrats'. This has three elements: first, people identify with a cause. Second, the see the cause as noble. Third, they see the authority who tells them to inflict harm in the name of the cause as a legitimate representative. That is, people don't do wrong because they are unaware of what they do, but because they believe it to be right. In this project, we will provide support for the 'engaged follower' perspective. The work has three elements. The first of these involves collecting new empirical data by employing innovative methods which overcome the ethical objections to Milgram's original research. We will start with conventional experimentation which examines how far people will go in derogating ever more benign groups. This allows us to investigate the impact of our core variables (identification with the cause, glorification of the cause, legitimacy of the representative) in a relatively benign setting. Next, we will draw on findings which show that people behave similarly in virtual reality simulations to conventional psychology experiments but without the same level of emotional intensity or distress. We will develop a virtual reality simulation of the Milgram paradigm and use it to, again, address the impact of our core variables on obedience. Finally, we will plan a full field study working with the police/armed services and drawing on exercises that would be conducted as a matter of course. The second element will be to organise a series of seminars involving psychologists, historians and practitioners with a view to sharing latest understandings of obedience and atrocity and to create a critical mass of people who can challenge the authority of the 'banality of evil' perspective. The third element involves dissemination to the public, both through involving the media in the seminar series, through producing a film to illustrate the 'engaged follower' perspective and also through producing a popular book aimed at a general audience. Data was primarily collected using undergraduate students who had agreed to be emailed psychological studies. In some cases, post-grad students and staff members working in universities across the U.K. were also emailed invitations to take part. All of the online studies used the same experimental paradigm (see Haslam, Reicher, & Birney, 2014 for a more detailed description). The task involves selecting negative traits to describe groups of increasingly pleasant people, making the task increasingly noxious for participants. In all of the studies, the purpose is to explore participants' willingness to continue with this unpleasant task as a function of their identificaiton with experimenter, the study's purpose, or the 'victim.' Hence, we did not collect data on the actual words chosen to describe each respective group. Instead, we recorded how far participants went in the trial (and variations of this measure) as well as their answers to the questionnaires that both preceeded and proceeded the task.

Zie de masterscriptie van Katinka Omon, Omstanders en de jodenvervolging. De herinneringen van negen vrouwen aan de jodenvervolging 1940 – 1945. (2006) Date Submitted: 2010-04-01 Bystander Memories bevat in totaal 59 interviews met Nederlandse niet-joodse ooggetuigen van de jodenvervolging. Deze interviews vormen een onderdeel van een project uitgevoerd door het United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Oral History Department, waar het valt onder de 'Europe Interview Projects: Interviews with Witnesses, Collaborators, and Perpetrators'. Naast de Nederlandse interviews zijn er ook interviews gemaakt in het (Wit)Russisch, Grieks, Macedonisch, Pools, Oekraiens, Servisch, Ests, Lets, Litouws, Moldavisch, Frans, Duits, Roemeens. De aantallen interviews per land variëren sterk. Het project is in 1996 begonnen en loopt nog steeds, zie website USHMM: http://www.ushmm.org/research/collections/oralhistory/Since 1996, United States Holocaust memorial Museum's (USHMM) Department of Oral History has conducted a documentation project to collect the testimonies of individuals who were not direct victims of the Holocaust. These interviews are with witnesses, collaborators, and perpetrators. In ten years, over 600 interviews have been conducted in the following European countries: Czech Republic, Estonia, France, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, The Netherlands, Poland, Romania, the Ukraine, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Serbia. These interviews serve not only as corroboration of what Jewish victims and survivors report in their interviews and memoirs, they also create a broader understanding of the tragic events of World War II by adding the perspectives of non-Jewish populations. The Dutch interviews are accessible at DANS for scientific research only.

De geïnterviewde vertelt over zijn kinderjaren in Amsterdam-Zuid waar hij te midden van de Joodse bevolking opgroeide. Hij vertelt over zijn Joodse vriendjes, over een razzia bij hem in de straat en vertelt hoe hij stiekem een leeggehaald huis binnen ging. Verder beschrijft hij een aantal gebeurtenissen die hij met zijn vader beleefde: de Duitsers op de Dam, de Dolle Dinsdag en een Jodenbuurt waar al het hout uit werd gestolen.The interviewee talks about his childhood in Amsterdam South where he grew up amidst the Jewish population. He talks about his Jewish friends, about a roundup in his street and how he secretly entered an abandoned house. He also describes a few situations he experienced together with his father; he describes Germans at Dam Square in Amsterdam, Dolle Dinsdag (September 4, 1944), and the Jewish neighbourhood where all the wood was stolen. Date Submitted: 2010-04-01 Van dit interview zijn eveneens uitgebreide samenvattingen met tijd-codes beschikbaar in zowel het Nederlands als Engels. Zie de Inleiding voor een snel overzicht van de gehele collectie en de contactgegevens. Er zijn tevens verschillende bestanden bijgevoegd betreffende het project en dit specifieke interview.Besides the transcript there is an extensive summary available of the interview in both Dutch and English with time-codes inserted. See the Introduction for a quick overview of the entire collection and the contact details. There are also several documents and reports available concerning the project and this particular interview. Bystander Memories bevat in totaal 59 interviews met Nederlandse niet-joodse ooggetuigen van de jodenvervolging. Deze interviews vormen een onderdeel van een project uitgevoerd door het United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Oral History Department, waar het valt onder de 'Europe Interview Projects: Interviews with Witnesses, Collaborators, and Perpetrators'. Naast de Nederlandse interviews zijn er ook interviews gemaakt in het (Wit)Russisch, Grieks, Macedonisch, Pools, Oekraiens, Servisch, Ests, Lets, Litouws, Moldavisch, Frans, Duits, Roemeens. De aantallen interviews per land variëren sterk. Het project is in 1996 begonnen en loopt nog steeds, zie website USHMM: http://www.ushmm.org/research/collections/oralhistory/Since 1996, United States Holocaust memorial Museum's (USHMM) Department of Oral History has conducted a documentation project to collect the testimonies of individuals who were not direct victims of the Holocaust. These interviews are with witnesses, collaborators, and perpetrators. In ten years, over 600 interviews have been conducted in the following European countries: Czech Republic, Estonia, France, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, The Netherlands, Poland, Romania, the Ukraine, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Serbia. These interviews serve not only as corroboration of what Jewish victims and survivors report in their interviews and memoirs, they also create a broader understanding of the tragic events of World War II by adding the perspectives of non-Jewish populations. The Dutch interviews are accessible at DANS for scientific research only.

Van dit interview zijn eveneens uitgebreide samenvattingen met tijd-codes beschikbaar in zowel het Nederlands als Engels. Zie de Inleiding voor een snel overzicht van de gehele collectie en de contactgegevens. Er zijn tevens verschillende bestanden bijgevoegd betreffende het project en dit specifieke interview.Besides the transcript there is an extensive summary available of the interview in both Dutch and English with time-codes inserted. See the Introduction for a quick overview of the entire collection and the contact details. There are also several documents and reports available concerning the project and this particular interview. Bystander Memories bevat in totaal 59 interviews met Nederlandse niet-joodse ooggetuigen van de jodenvervolging. Deze interviews vormen een onderdeel van een project uitgevoerd door het United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Oral History Department, waar het valt onder de 'Europe Interview Projects: Interviews with Witnesses, Collaborators, and Perpetrators'. Naast de Nederlandse interviews zijn er ook interviews gemaakt in het (Wit)Russisch, Grieks, Macedonisch, Pools, Oekraiens, Servisch, Ests, Lets, Litouws, Moldavisch, Frans, Duits, Roemeens. De aantallen interviews per land variëren sterk. Het project is in 1996 begonnen en loopt nog steeds, zie website USHMM: http://www.ushmm.org/research/collections/oralhistory/Since 1996, United States Holocaust memorial Museum's (USHMM) Department of Oral History has conducted a documentation project to collect the testimonies of individuals who were not direct victims of the Holocaust. These interviews are with witnesses, collaborators, and perpetrators. In ten years, over 600 interviews have been conducted in the following European countries: Czech Republic, Estonia, France, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, The Netherlands, Poland, Romania, the Ukraine, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Serbia. These interviews serve not only as corroboration of what Jewish victims and survivors report in their interviews and memoirs, they also create a broader understanding of the tragic events of World War II by adding the perspectives of non-Jewish populations. The Dutch interviews are accessible at DANS for scientific research only.