Women, Business and the Law 2020, the sixth edition in a series, analyzes laws and regulations affecting women’s economic inclusion in 190 economies. The Women, Business and the Law Index, composed by eight indicators structured around women’s interactions with the law as they begin, progress through and end their careers, aligns different areas of the law with the economic decisions women make at various stages of their lives. The indicators are: Mobility, Workplace, Pay, Marriage, Parenthood, Entrepreneurship, Assets, and Pension. The report updates all indicators as of September 1, 2019, and builds evidence around the linkages between legal gender equality and women’s economic inclusion. By examining the economic decisions women make as they go through different stages of their working lives and the pace of reforms over the past 2 years, Women, Business and the Law makes an important contribution to research and policy discussions about the state of women’s economic opportunities and empowerment. While celebrating the progress made, the data and analysis emphasize the work still to be done to ensure economic empowerment for all.

Citation
“World Bank. 2020. Women, Business and the Law 2020. Washington, DC: World Bank. © World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/32639 License: CC BY 3.0 IGO.”

URI
http://hdl.handle.net/10986/32639

Series Name: Proportion of women aged 20-24 years who were married or in a union before age 15 (percent)Series Code: SP_DYN_MRBF15Release Version: 2020.Q2.G.03This dataset is the part of the Global SDG Indicator Database compiled through the UN System in preparation for the Secretary-General's annual report on Progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals.Indicator 5.3.1: Proportion of women aged 20–24 years who were married or in a union before age 15 and before age 18Target 5.3: Eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, early and forced marriage and female genital mutilationGoal 5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girlsFor more information on the compilation methodology of this dataset, see https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/metadata/

Series Name: Proportion of women who make their own informed decisions regarding sexual relations contraceptive use and reproductive health care (percent of women aged 15-49 years)Series Code: SH_FPL_INFMRelease Version: 2020.Q2.G.03This dataset is the part of the Global SDG Indicator Database compiled through the UN System in preparation for the Secretary-General's annual report on Progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals.Indicator 5.6.1: Proportion of women aged 15–49 years who make their own informed decisions regarding sexual relations, contraceptive use and reproductive health careTarget 5.6: Ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights as agreed in accordance with the Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development and the Beijing Platform for Action and the outcome documents of their review conferencesGoal 5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girlsFor more information on the compilation methodology of this dataset, see https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/metadata/

Women and Men in Spain: Female part time work according to period. Percentage of all women employed. Spain, UE-27 and UE-28. Annual. National. Nota: UE27_2020: 27 países (desde 2020). UE-28: 28 países (2013-2020).

Abstract

Facebook’s Survey on Gender Equality at Home generates a global snapshot of women and men’s access to resources, their time spent on unpaid care work, and their attitudes about equality. This survey covers topics about gender dynamics and norms, unpaid caregiving, and life during the COVID-19 pandemic. Aggregated data is available publicly on Humanitarian Data Exchange (HDX). De-identified microdata is also available to eligible nonprofits and universities through Facebook’s Data for Good (DFG) program. For more information, please email dataforgood@fb.com.

Geographic coverage

This survey is fielded once a year in over 200 countries and 60 languages. The data can help researchers track trends in gender equality and progress on the Sustainable Development Goals.

Analysis unit

• Public Aggregate Data on HDX: country or regional levels
• De-identified Microdata through Facebook Data for Good program: Individual level

Universe

The survey was fielded to active Facebook users.

Kind of data

Sample survey data [ssd]

Sampling procedure

Respondents were sampled across seven regions: - East Asia and Pacific; Europe and Central Asia - Latin America and Caribbean - Middle East and North Africa - North America - Sub-Saharan Africa - South Asia

For the purposes of this report, responses have been aggregated up to the regional level; these regional estimates form the basis of this report and its associated products (Regional Briefs). In order to ensure respondent confidentiality, these estimates are based on responses where a sufficient number of people responded to each question and thus where confidentiality can be assured. This results in a sample of 461,748 respondents.

The sampling frame for this survey is the global database of Facebook users who were active on the platform at least once over the past 28 days, which offers a number of advantages: It allows for the design, implementation, and launch of a survey in a timely manner. Large sample sizes allow for more questions to be asked through random assignment of modules, avoiding respondent fatigue. Samples may be drawn from diverse segments of the online population. Knowledge of the overall sampling frame allowed for more rigorous probabilistic sampling techniques and non-response adjustments than is typical for online and phone surveys

Mode of data collection

Internet [int]

Research instrument

The survey includes a total of 75 questions, split across into the following sections: - Basic demographics and gender norms - Decision making and resource allocation across household members - Unpaid caregiving - Additional household demographics and COVID-19 impact - Optional questions for special groups (e.g. students, business owners, the employed, and the unemployed)

Questions were developed collaboratively by a team of economists and gender experts from the World Bank, UN Women, Equal Measures 2030, and Ladysmith. Some of the questions have been borrowed from other surveys that employ alternative modes of administration (e.g., face-to-face, telephone surveys, etc.); this allows for comparability and identification of potential gaps and biases inherent to Facebook and other online survey platforms. As such, the survey also generates methodological insights that are useful to researchers undertaking alternative modes of data collection during the COVID-19 era.

In order to avoid “survey fatigue,” wherein respondents begin to disengage from the survey content and responses become less reliable, each respondent was only asked to answer a subset of questions. Specifically, each respondent saw a maximum of 30 questions, comprising demographics (asked of all respondents) and a set of additional questions randomly and purposely allocated to them.

Response rate

Response rates to online surveys vary widely depending on a number of factors including survey length, region, strength of the relationship with invitees, incentive mechanisms, invite copy, interest of respondents in the topic and survey design.

Sampling error estimates

Any survey data is prone to several forms of error and biases that need to be considered to understand how closely the results reflect the intended population. In particular, the following components of the total survey error are noteworthy:

Sampling error is a natural characteristic of every survey based on samples and reflects the uncertainty in any survey result that is attributable to the fact that not the whole population is surveyed.

Other factors beyond sampling error that contribute to such potential differences are frame or coverage error and nonresponse error.

Data appraisal

Survey Limitations The survey only captures respondents who: (1) have access to the Internet (2) are Facebook users (3) opt to take this survey through the Facebook platform. Knowledge of the overall demographics of the online population in each region allows for calibration such that estimates are representative at this level. However, this means the results only tell us something about the online population in each region, not the overall population. As such, the survey cannot generate global estimates or meaningful comparisons across countries and regions, given the heterogeneity in internet connectivity across countries. Estimates have only been generated for respondents who gave their gender as male or female. The survey included an “other” option but very few respondents selected it, making it impossible to generate meaningful estimates for non-binary populations. It is important to note that the survey was not designed to paint a comprehensive picture of household dynamics but rather to shed light on respondents’ reported experiences and roles within households

The Paris 2024 Olympic Games were scheduled to be the first time a modern Summer Olympics will have an equal share of male and female athletes competing. The first modern Olympic Games in Athens in 1896 were exclusively for male competitors, and although some female events were introduced in Paris in 1900, the share of events was just 2.2 percent. Over the next century, the ratio of female to male events has gradually narrowed, and at a faster rate in recent decades, reaching almost 49 percent in Tokyo 2020. Not only has the overall volume of female athletes increased, the last decade has seen the introduction of several mixed events; these included mixed shooting events and both sprinting and swimming mixed relays.

Abstract

To support sustainable fish food systems and nutrition in sub-Saharan Africa, the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD) provided funding to the FAO to support initial project activities in five countries (Sierra Leone, Malawi, Ghana, Uganda, Tanzania) with a focus on strengthening women's roles in the small-scale fisheries post-harvest sector. The project conducted a baseline survey as well as a needs assessment and mapping of women's organizations. Three surveys were developed to capture information from various stakeholders:

• Individual/Household level: The baseline study conducted for this project included individual intercept surveys targeting women as actors in small-scale fisheries value chains. The purpose of the survey was to understand both the individual respondent (i.e., the woman) and her household's involvement in fisheries, how they acquire and consume fish, their experiences of food security and dietary practices, and participation in fisheries governance and organizations. Approxtaimely 300 women were surveyed per country. This study was conducted for baseline monitoring and evaluation of the project “Empowering women in small-scale fisheries for sustainable food systems”.

• Focus group discussions: Focus group discussions were held in each landing site alongside data collection using other survey instruments. The purpose of the focus group discussions was to elicit qualitative data reflecting the opinions of women from the same fish landing sites on key issues affecting their work, status, and roles in the sector. This included their opinions of discrimination or harassment against women, their voice in decision-making and ability to influence fisheries governance, changes in gender relations over time, and their access to training, facilities, and assets needed to conduct their fisheries activities. This study was conducted for baseline monitoring and evaluation of the project “Empowering women in small-scale fisheries for sustainable food systems”.

• Individuals (with policy-level influence in the small-scale fishing sector): The baseline study conducted for this project included key informant interviews with those in policy, programme, or other similar levels of sector influence (e.g., Policy Makers, Government, Projects, Programmes working on social and health interventions in fishing communities). The purpose of the key informant interviews was to understand the opinion of respondents on local the diet and eating patterns of the community, women's empowerment, facilities they believe exist at or are in place and serve fish workers. In addition, the questions sought to gain an understanding of what is already known at decision-making levels of the FAO SSF Guidelines and knowledge of fishing community's capacity building needs and how learning and technological change occurs. This study was conducted for baseline monitoring and evaluation of the project "Empowering women in small-scale fisheries for sustainable food systems".

• Organizational level: The purpose of the survey is to enhance understanding of where women are organized in small-scale fisheries (or 'map' them both geographically and within the value chain) and what their present organizational characteristics, capacities, and needs are. Data were collected and analyzed to recommend interventions to enhance women’s organizational capacities and to work towards greater gender equality in fish value chains. The survey covers organizational-level characteristics (i.e., not individual members) of women’s small-scale fishery organizations (defined as formal or informal organizations whose members and leaders are majority women who work in the small-scale fishing sector). Data collection entailed 3-5 members of one women’s organization meeting and collectively answering the survey questions regarding the characteristics of their organization. The survey included questions about group structure, characteristics, and history as well as participation in the value chain, membership benefits, external linkages, and greatest needs.

Geographic coverage

National coverage of coastal areas of high importance to fisheries, including both inland and marine fisheries (where relevant) and both major and minor water bodies. A sample of coastal regions or districts that met these criteria and represented the diversity of fisheries in the country was chosen (non-random sample).

Analysis unit

Individuals, Households, Focus Groups, Organizations

Universe

• Individual/Household level: Women who work in small-scale fishing value chains (harvest, post-harvest processing or trade).
• Focus groups: Women who work in small-scale fisheries.
• Individuals (with policy-level influence in the small-scale fishing sector): Policy-level actors in the fishing sector. This includes government and non-governmental personnel working in fisheries, environment, or gender and development themes that impact fishing communities.
• Organizational level: Women's small-scale fisheries organizations, whether formally registered or informally operating. This was defined as an organization whose members and leaders are majority women engaged in small-scale fisheries activities (whether harvesting or post-harvest processing and trade).

Kind of data

Sample survey data [ssd]

Sampling procedure

Individual/household level: - Sample size: 300 individuals per country - Selection process: Surveys were conducted as intercept surveys at fish landing sites, markets and within fishing communities. - Stratification: By district and landing site. The target number of surveys per country (300) was divided by the number of landing sites chosen for the study.

Focus groups: - Non-random sample of women chosen opportunistically (based on availability) to participate in a small group, focus group discussions. Typically 2 focus group discussions were held in each district or region where data collection occurred for the larger, baseline assessment of the project.

Individuals (with policy-level influence in the small-scale fishing sector): - Survey sampling for key informant interviews was purposive, selecting individuals who were known to be knowledgeable about relevant policy issues impacting fishing communities that were of interest to the project (e.g., nutrition, gender issues, leadership, decision-making). These individuals were identified based on the expert knowledge of the National Project Coordinator with input from the government and influential local leaders. Approximately 10 key informants were surveyed per country, with 1-3 individuals interviewed per district/region.

Organizational level: - Varied by country, ranging from approximately 40-60 organizations. - Selection Process: This survey was not a random sample or stratified sample of organizations. However, efforts were made to ensure the survey was representative of organizations in each country and the districts chosen for surveying. To ensure this, prior to implementing the survey a combination of existing information on women's fisheries organizations was used (e.g., registries, lists, expert knowledge), and where needed, background data was collected on the number of women's small-scale fisheries groups in each district. After this, background and existing data were collected, we used this estimate of the population or organizations in each district. Based on these estimates of the population of organizations, we applied the sampling protocol (described below) to determine the target number of surveys to be collected in each district. However, surveys were implemented opportunistically in the field with individual organizations that were available and accessible at the time of data collection. Inclusion criteria. To be included in the survey, organizations had to meet the following criteria: a. The group identifies as an organization, either formally registered or informal. b. Membership is majority (more than 50 percent) women. c. Women are an active part of the organization's leadership. d. The majority of group members are engaged in capture fishing and related activities including pre-harvest, processing, and trade of fish or fish products. - The following sampling protocol was applied to the estimated number of women's small-scale fisheries groups in a district (always rounding up to a whole number): Fewer than 7 organizations: do not sample (i.e. survey all groups); - 8-10 organizations: sample 60 percent; - 11-14 organizations: sample 50 percent; - 15-20 organizations: sample 40 percent; - More than 20 organizations: sample 30 percent where possible, 20 percent as needed.

Sampling deviation

At the organizational level, the individual groups selected for the survey were not chosen randomly, instead, they were chosen for interviews based on their availability at the time of data collection and ease of contact.

Mode of data collection

Face-to-face [f2f], Focus Group [foc]

Research instrument

Individual/Household level: - Questionnaire used: Empowering Women in Small Scale Fisheries for Sustainable Food Systems Individual Questionnaire. - Language: English.

Focus Groups level: - Questionnaire used: Empowering Women in Small Scale Fisheries for Sustainable Food Systems Focus Groups Discussions Questionnaire. - Language: English.

Key Informants Interview: - Questionnaire used: Baseline KII survey - Language: English

Organizational level: - Questionnaire used: Questionnaire Mapping Assessment Women's ssf Organizations. - Language: English. - Questionnaire Design: The questionnaire was designed based on earlier studies conducted in Tanzania. The first draft of

United States Unemployment: sa: Female data was reported at 3,211.000 Person th in Dec 2024. This records a decrease from the previous number of 3,288.000 Person th for Nov 2024. United States Unemployment: sa: Female data is updated monthly, averaging 3,048.000 Person th from Jan 1948 (Median) to Dec 2024, with 924 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 11,864.000 Person th in Apr 2020 and a record low of 510.000 Person th in May 1953. United States Unemployment: sa: Female data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. The data is categorized under Global Database’s United States – Table US.G036: Current Population Survey: Unemployment: Seasonally Adjusted. [COVID-19-IMPACT]

Bolivia BO: Literacy Rate: Adult Female: % of Females Aged 15 and Above data was reported at 91.000 % in 2020. This records an increase from the previous number of 89.000 % for 2015. Bolivia BO: Literacy Rate: Adult Female: % of Females Aged 15 and Above data is updated yearly, averaging 87.000 % from Dec 1976 (Median) to 2020, with 10 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 92.000 % in 2012 and a record low of 51.000 % in 1976. Bolivia BO: Literacy Rate: Adult Female: % of Females Aged 15 and Above data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by World Bank. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Bolivia – Table BO.World Bank.WDI: Social: Education Statistics. Adult literacy rate is the percentage of people ages 15 and above who can both read and write with understanding a short simple statement about their everyday life.;UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS). UIS.Stat Bulk Data Download Service. Accessed September 30, 2024. https://apiportal.uis.unesco.org/bdds.;Weighted average;

United States WE: Age 25 & Over: Female: First Decile data was reported at 459.000 USD in Mar 2020. This records an increase from the previous number of 449.000 USD for Dec 2019. United States WE: Age 25 & Over: Female: First Decile data is updated quarterly, averaging 348.000 USD from Mar 2000 (Median) to Mar 2020, with 81 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 459.000 USD in Mar 2020 and a record low of 269.000 USD in Sep 2000. United States WE: Age 25 & Over: Female: First Decile data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by Bureau of Labor Statistics. The data is categorized under Global Database’s United States – Table US.G030: Current Population Survey: Usual Weekly Earnings.

Series Name: Legal frameworks that promote enforce and monitor gender equality (percentage of achievement 0 - 100) -- Area 4: marriage and familySeries Code: SG_LGL_GENEQMARRelease Version: 2020.Q2.G.03This dataset is the part of the Global SDG Indicator Database compiled through the UN System in preparation for the Secretary-General's annual report on Progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals.Indicator 5.1.1: Whether or not legal frameworks are in place to promote, enforce and monitor equality and non-discrimination on the basis of sexTarget 5.1: End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls everywhereGoal 5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girlsFor more information on the compilation methodology of this dataset, see https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/metadata/

Abstract copyright UK Data Service and data collection copyright owner.Gender and Adolescence: Global Evidence (GAGE) is a ten-year (2015-2025) research programme, funded by UK Aid from the UK Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO), that seeks to combine longitudinal data collection and a mixed-methods approach to understand the lives of adolescents in particularly marginalized regions of the Global South, and to uncover 'what works' to support the development of their capabilities over the course of the second decade of life, when many of these individuals will go through key transitions such as finishing their education, starting to work, getting married and starting to have children.GAGE undertakes longitudinal research in seven countries in Africa (Ethiopia, Rwanda), Asia (Bangladesh, Nepal) and the Middle East (Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine). Sampling adolescent girls and boys aged between 10‐19‐year olds, the quantitative survey follows a global total of 18,000 adolescent girls and boys, and their caregivers and explores the effects that programme have on their lives. This is substantiated by in‐depth qualitative and participatory research with adolescents and their peers. Its policy and legal analysis work stream studies the processes of policy change that influence the investment in and effectiveness of adolescent programming.Further information, including publications, can be found on the Overseas Development Institute GAGE website. Gender and Adolescence: Global Evidence: Ethiopia Round 2, 2019-2020 extends the GAGE quantitative research in Ethiopia for a second round. A sample of nearly 8,600 adolescent boys and girls was sought, including nearly 7,000 adolescents surveyed in an earlier Baseline round (available from the UK Data Archive under SN 8597), as well as approximately 1,600 new adolescents. The main purpose of this survey was to gather information on the lives of Ethiopian adolescents living in urban and rural locations in the Amhara, Oromiya, and Afar regions, and to understand their changing lives and challenges. At the time of data collection, adolescents were primarily aged 12-14 and 17-19. The sample includes both randomly and purposefully sampled adolescents, and their female caregivers were also surveyed where possible. The current data release includes information for the subset of individuals who are not part of an ongoing randomized evaluation of adolescent-centric programming. A total of nearly 5,000 adolescents and their caregivers are included in the current release. Main Topics: The Core Respondent (CR) dataset contains data from the survey administered to the CR and covers education, time allocation, paid work, health and nutrition, psychosocial and mental health, mobility and voice, social inclusion, marriage and relationships, financial inclusion and economic empowerment, and information and communication technologies. The Adult Female (AF) dataset contains information on the household, including the household roster, family background, durable goods, dwelling characteristics, access to productive capital, recent positive and negative shocks, and household access to programs and support. In addition, the AF survey contains detailed information about the AF herself, such as parenting, health and nutrition, attitudes to gender equality, marriage, fertility and social norms. Purposive selection/case studies Multi-stage stratified random sample Face-to-face interview: Computer-assisted (CAPI/CAMI) 2019 2020 ACCESS TO EDUCATION ACCESS TO HEALTH SE... ACCESS TO INFORMATI... ACTIVITIES OF DAILY... ADOLESCENCE ADOLESCENTS AGE ALCOHOL USE ANIMAL HUSBANDRY ANXIETY ARRANGED MARRIAGES ATTITUDES BANK ACCOUNTS BIRTH CONTROL CHILDREN CREDIT DEVELOPING COUNTRIES DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES DISABILITIES EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND EDUCATIONAL CHOICE EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES EDUCATIONAL STATUS EMOTIONAL STATES ENERGY CONSUMPTION Education Ethiopia FAMILY INFLUENCE FAMILY PLANNING FATHER S EDUCATIONA... FATHERS FINANCIAL DIFFICULTIES FOOD FOOD AND NUTRITION GENDER EQUALITY GENDER ROLE Gender and gender r... HEADS OF HOUSEHOLD HEALTH STATUS HEARING IMPAIRMENTS HOUSEHOLD BUDGETS HOUSEHOLDERS HOUSEHOLDS HOUSING CONDITIONS ILL HEALTH INFORMAL CARE INFORMATION SOURCES INTERNAL MIGRATION INTERNET ACCESS INTERNET USE LAND OWNERSHIP LAVATORIES LEISURE TIME ACTIVI... LIFE SATISFACTION LITERACY LIVESTOCK LOANS MARITAL HISTORY MARITAL STATUS MENSTRUATION MOBILE PHONES MORAL VALUES MOTHERS PARENTAL ENCOURAGEMENT PARENTAL ROLE PERSONAL FINANCE MA... PERSONAL SAFETY PHYSICAL MOBILITY PLACE OF BIRTH PREGNANCY QUALITY OF LIFE RELIGIOUS AFFILIATION RELIGIOUS BEHAVIOUR RESIDENTIAL MOBILITY ROOMS SAVINGS SCHOOL PUNISHMENTS SCHOOLS SEX SEX DISCRIMINATION SOCIAL ATTITUDES SOCIAL INEQUALITY SOCIAL VALUES STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS... STUDENT EMPLOYMENT STUDENT TRANSPORTATION Society and culture TELEVISION VIEWING TIME BUDGETS TRUANCY UNEARNED INCOME VISION IMPAIRMENTS WATER RESOURCES Youth

Female population of Cao Bằng went up by 0.44% from 265 thousand persons in 2019 to 266 thousand persons in 2020. Since the 0.18% improve in 2010, female population improved by 3.14% in 2020.

Smoking prevalence among adult women of Canada dropped by 5.31% from 11.3 % in 2019 to 10.7 % in 2020. Since the 1.48% increase in 2016, smoking prevalence among adult women plummeted by 21.90% in 2020. Prevalence of smoking, female is the percentage of women ages 15 and over who smoke any form of tobacco, including cigarettes, cigars, and pipes, and excluding smokeless tobacco. Data include daily and non-daily smoking.

45 to 49 years - female of Baja California Sur dipped by 2.34% from 856 persons in 2015 to 836 persons in 2020. Since the 4.43% upward trend in 2010, 45 to 49 years - female plummeted by 30.51% in 2020.

The first modern Olympic Games in Athens in 1896 saw just 241 athletes compete across 43 different events. Over the next 125 years, these numbers have gradually climbed, and the Games in Rio in 2016 were the largest to date, with more than eleven thousand athletes taking part in 306 different events. The Athens Games in 1896 was exclusively for male athletes, while the Paris Games in 1900 had 22 female competitors in non-athletic events such as tennis and golf (although the golf participants were not aware that it was an Olympic event, and the gold medalist's family was not informed of this until recently). Over time, the number of female athletes slowly increased, although it did not hit the ten percent mark until 1952, or the quarter mark until 1988; while the highest level of female participation was in 2020, where almost 5,400 women competed (49 percent). In the 2020 Olympics in Tokyo, a number of mixed shooting events, table tennis doubles, and swimming and sprinting relays were introduced in an attempt to improve participation among female athletes, although overall participation was lower as many did not travel, withdrew, or were unable to compete due to coronavirus (Covid-19) related problems.

As of 2024, the share of internet users in the CIS region (Commonwealth of Independent States) was the highest in the world, with 91 percent of the female population and 93 percent of the male population accessing the internet. As of the same year, there were 90 percent female and 92 percent male internet users in Europe, making it the second region worldwide by internet usage. Africa was the region where internet access was the lowest. Share of female and male internet users worldwide There are still disparities between the internet access rates of male and female online users in global regions. According to the latest data, 34 percent of Africa’s female population had online access, compared to 45 percent of men. Whereas in the Americas, the share of male and female internet users was the same, 83 percent. There was also a big difference in the share of female and male internet users in the Arab States. In the region, 65 percent of women had access to the internet, whereas the share of the male population using the internet was 75 percent. The gender gap was also seen in mobile internet usage in low-and middle-income countries (LMICs). Internet access and SDGs As of 2022, Africa’s online access rate was the lowest worldwide, with estimates showing that just over 30 percent of the total population was using the internet. By comparison, the global average online usage rate was 51 percent. This technological gap between Africa and the rest of the world highlights the need for continued investment in information and communication technologies on the continent, as such processes can speed up progress towards the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) set by the United Nations. The Sustainable Development Goals, also known as the Global Goals, are a worldwide agenda to protect the planet, end poverty, and ensure global peace and prosperity. ICTs, especially mobile internet, contribute to the goals by enabling countries to participate in digital economies as well as empowering individuals to access crucial information and services. However, almost 40 percent of the world was not using the internet as of 2021. Particularly disenfranchised groups were frequently excluded from digital society, including women and girls, people with disabilities, elders, indigenous populations, people living in poverty, and inhabitants of least developed or developing countries. The digital gender gap was another obstacle for women to overcome on a global level to achieve economic advancement which would ultimately also benefit their communities.

The research sought to contribute to a gender-sensitive understanding of the interaction between economic and socio-cultural drivers of labour migrations in different cities: Erbil in Kurdistan-Iraq; Beirut in Lebanon; Islamabad in Pakistan; and Istanbul in Turkey. While migration remains a key issue globally, relatively little work has been done on gender migrations in the Global South, and what has been done has largely focussed on domestic and care work, without including higher-skilled migrants.

The project addresses this gap by interviewing approximately 25 women and NGO workers in each city and was designed to go beyond domestic work by looking at a range of labour sectors where women play active roles. In doing so, this research contributes to a better understanding of, the global circulation of gendered labour that is occurring, the drivers of this movement, women’s rights and agency, and how migrant women use urban spaces, within these contexts.

This project was designed with specific attention to researcher power dynamics. It was conducted with (not on) researchers in the Global South, thus aiming to produce knowledge from the South rather than to impose knowledge from the North. The multi-context project design also brings forward a rich comparative analysis of societies in South Asia and the Middle East – going beyond one country and nation-state borders.

Key findings of the project are:

• Gendered migrations in the Middle East and South Asia are diverse In terms of educational level, occupations, nationalities and rights and include migrant women from the Global South and North.

• Discriminatory practices in home countries inform migration. In each of the four countries there were discriminatory practices and patriarchal norms in their home countries that influenced the women’s migration (e.g., sexual violence, domestic violence, discriminatory employment practices because they are women, discrimination against their SOGIE identity, no legal rights to divorce).

• Women are treated differently based on their race, country of origin, and social capital within a given context. Women from diverse backgrounds faced distinct forms of discrimination based on their intersectional identities. For example, in Turkey, cultural capital is important. Women from North America, in particular those who were educated with university degrees were often able to find good work as teachers, journalists, or translators. In contrast, the women interviewed from the former Soviet Union, who were also educated, went through a process of de-skilling after migration – now working as cleaners or live-in carers. This happens in-part because they have less cultural capital in the Turkish context.

• Education levels amongst the women were high, but the value placed on that education once in the country of migration was mixed. Despite relatively high levels of education, many of the women still faced significant hurdles in finding commensurate employment opportunities.

• Women’s agency can be both amplified and strained in migration contexts. Most women showed agency in their choice to migrate away from their home countries and in their efforts to improve their life conditions. However, women's agency in these contexts was strained by structural inequalities and violence that inhibited and moulded their ability to participate in the labour market. For example, two of the Syrian women interviewed in Lebanon described how they ended up in sex work, despite this not being their choice or aspiration.

• Personal networks based on nationality play a key role in women’s lives. Interviews revealed that rather than relying on formal trade unions or collective forms of organising, many women used personal networks based on nationality to build community and advance their working conditions and livelihoods.

• Recruitment agencies have a lot of control and power. Recruitment agencies also shape who migrates because they have bilateral agreements with agencies in countries of origin. They can influence and shape the flow of who and under what conditions migrants are allowed to enter the country. This is particularly the case in Lebanon where they blocked changes to the Kafala system

Graph and download economic data for Ratio of Female to Male Primary School Enrollment for World (SEENRPRIMFMZSWLD) from 1970 to 2020 about primary schooling, enrolled, females, males, ratio, and primary.

Aruba AW: Literacy Rate: Youth Female: % of Females Aged 15-24 data was reported at 99.410 % in 2020. This records an increase from the previous number of 99.323 % for 2010. Aruba AW: Literacy Rate: Youth Female: % of Females Aged 15-24 data is updated yearly, averaging 99.323 % from Dec 2000 (Median) to 2020, with 3 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 99.410 % in 2020 and a record low of 99.166 % in 2000. Aruba AW: Literacy Rate: Youth Female: % of Females Aged 15-24 data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by World Bank. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Aruba – Table AW.World Bank.WDI: Social: Education Statistics. Youth literacy rate is the percentage of people ages 15-24 who can both read and write with understanding a short simple statement about their everyday life.;UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS). UIS.Stat Bulk Data Download Service. Accessed April 24, 2024. https://apiportal.uis.unesco.org/bdds.;Weighted average;