Necessary files to reproduce Boehnke and Gay. 2022. "The Missing Men. World War I and Female Labor Force Participation." Journal of Human Resources, 57(4).

Abstract

The 1998/99 Integrated Labour Force Survey (ILFS) was the first of its kind to integrate three related surveys (labour force, informal sector and child labour modular surveys) into a single cost-effective survey. It was conducted over the whole country on the household-based NASSEP III sample frame, and covered 11,049 households giving a response rate of 86.2 per cent. As such, the survey collected a wide range of representative information that can be used in the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of various policies and programmes. In particular, it provides indicators such as school enrolments rates, housing conditions, access to amenities and facilities, income and expenditures, unemployment rates, and income and expenditure levels which should provide invaluable inputs into the monitoring and evaluation of the economic reforms and poverty reduction programmes that are being implemented by the Government.

The key objectives of the survey were to update data on the labour force, determine the size and output of the informal sector, and estimate the extent of child labour. A rich data bank has been created as a by-product of data processing exercise, which can be used to carry out further analysis of the information collected by the survey.

In designing and implementing the survey, CBS worked closely with other stakeholders through the Inter-Ministerial Steering Committee (IMSC) that was formed to provide overall guidance on the implementation of the survey. The committee was composed of representatives from Ministry of Labour and Human Resource Development, Ministry of Education Science and Technology, and the Macro Planning and Human Resources and Social Services departments in the Ministry of Finance and Planning. A Technical Working Group (TWG) was formed as the survey's secretariat that undertook day-to-day activities on the implementation of the survey.

The Surveyed Population

Age-sex Structure The age-sex pyramid of the surveyed population depicts a youthful population, with those aged below 15 years absorbing 42.3 per cent of the population, leading to a dependency ration of 85.3 per cent. The sex ratio was 0.997 for the whole population and 1.06 at birth (age 0-4). The average household size was 4.2 persons (3.3 persons in urban areas and 4.7 persons in rural areas).

Marital status and migration patterns An estimated 42.7 per cent of the population aged over 12 years had never married. Of those ever married, 51.3 per cent were in current marriage, 3.5 per cent widowed and 3.6 per cent separated or divorced. There was evidence of early marriages where 5.0 percent of the population aged 13-17 reported they were currently married.

Education and Literacy There were 3.6 million children in primary and 0.9 million children in secondary schools, giving gross enrolment ratios of 89.1 percent and 30.7 percent respectively. Student sex ratio, or ratio of males for females, in primary schools was 1.08, while that for secondary schools was 1.20. About 16.4 percent of the Kenyan population aged over 5 years and over reported to have had no formal education at all. Those with primary education constituted 59.0 per cent of the referenced population while 19.7 percent had attained secondary education. Only 1.1 per cent had attained university education.

Housing and amenities About 31.0 per cent of the households had a permanent dwelling unit. Majority of the rural households reported that they owned both the dwelling units they lived in and the land on which it was built, while almost all the urban residents lived in rented dwelling units. About 12.5 per cent of households, mainly in the rural areas, reported they had no toilet facilities. The commonest type of waste disposal was pit latrine, but flush toilet was prevalent in urban areas. Most of the rural households travelled long distances to fetch water, while 80.4 percent of the urban households had water within 50 meters. Firewood was the commonest type of cooking fuel in rural areas, while paraffin (53.3 per cent) and charcoal (22.6 per cent) were the main types of cooking fuels in urban areas. About 77.2 per cent of responding households were using paraffin to light their houses, with 90.5 per cent in rural areas. Urban areas mainly relied on paraffin (50.7 per cent) and electricity (41.8 per cent) as the chief sources of lighting.

Migration Patterns The overall out-migration rate was 13.2 percent, with rural areas losing a large portion of its population to urban areas. Among the eight provinces, Nairobi, Western and Central experienced significant out-migration of over 15.0 percent. Overall, urban areas were net gainers in population flows within the country.

Household expenditure Overall mean monthly expenditure per household amounted to Kshs 6,343. Monthly mean expenditures for rural households were estimated at Kshs 4,101, while the urban equivalent was Kshs 10,826. There were expenditure differentials between male- and female-headed households, where mean monthly expenditures for female-headed households in rural areas was Kshs 2,986, quite below he monthly expenditure of Kshs 4,620 for male-headed households. Similarly, mean expenditure for male-headed households in urban areas was almost twice that of female-headed households.

The Labour Force Participation

Economic activity The results show that there were 15.9 million persons aged 15-64 (the working population) of which 77.4 per cent reported to be economically active. Most of the active population was youth between 24-34 years of age. About 14.6 percent of the economically active were unemployed. Some 3.6 million persons reported to be economically inactive, representing 22.6 per cent of the population aged 15-64 years. Majority of the inactive population was full time students (47.3 per cent). Only 2.0 per cent of the inactive population reported they were out of the labour force because they were retired.

Participation Rates The overall labour force participation rate for the population aged 15 - 64 years stood at 73.6 per cent. Urban areas had higher labour force participation rate of 86.4 per cent compared to rural areas with a rate of 73.8 per cent. Males had a slightly higher participation rate of 74.7 per cent compared to that of females at 72.6 per cent. The results show that participation rates increase along the age spectrum to about 95.2 for the age group 40 - 44 before levelling to 80. 1 per cent for the age cohort 60 - 64. Also, participation rates tend to rise with the level of formal education, rising from 83.7 per cent for those with no education to over 98.8 per cent for those who have completed post-graduate education.

Employment The number of employed persons aged 15-64 years stood at 10.5 million persons, giving employment rate of 85.4 per cent. The overall employment sex ratio was 1.08, but females dominated rural based small-scale farming and pastoralist activities, with a sex ratio of 0.67. Rural area absorbed 70.1 per cent of the employed persons. The working population was largely made up of unpaid family workers (39.6 per cent), mostly working in the rural areas and paid employees, largely concentrated in urban areas (33.4 per cent). Self-employed persons constituted 23.8 per cent of the employed. Of the three sectors of the economy, small-scale farming and pastoralist activities engaged 42.1 per cent of workers. Informal sector and formal or modern sector absorbed 31.6 per cent and 26.3 per cent of the total workforce.

Occupations and industry Most of the employed persons reported to be skilled agricultural and fishery workers (37.3 per cent), largely self-employed based in rural areas. Professionals were mainly in paid employment, and accounted for only 1.2 per cent of the employed persons. The agricultural activities absorbed 63.1 per cent of the employed persons. The other major employers were the service industries with community, social and personal services accounting for 6.1 per cent of the employed. The least popular industries were private households with employed persons, and electricity and water supply. The number of females employed in activities traditionally dominated by males such as construction, mining and quarrying was notably low. However, females were concentrated in agricultural activities, trades, and educational services.

Hours of work Most workers reported 40 working hours per week with a significant proportion of the urban population working above the average hours. Urban workers generally reported to have worked for longer hours than workers in rural areas. Gender analysis shows that females worked for fewer hours than males, particularly in the rural areas. However, females who worked in urban areas (in private households as housemaids) were working quite above 40 hours in a week.

Wage levels Average earnings amounted to KShs 7,766 per month, with the main source of employee's remuneration being basic salary, which formed 81.3 per cent of the overall earnings per person. Earnings in urban were almost double the average earnings in rural areas. There were significant disparities in earnings by gender as females were earnings wages quite below their male counter parts in both rural and urban areas.

Unemployment There were 1.8 million unemployed persons aged 15-64 years, giving an overall unemployment rate of 14.6 per cent. The urban unemployment rate had risen from -- per cent in 1989 to 25.1 per cent by 1999. Like wise, unemployment in the rural areas was high at 9.4 per cent, but less acute then in urban areas. Most of the unemployed were youth and females. Most of the unemployed persons (94.2 per cent) were looking for paid employment during the one-week reference period. It is also worth noting the shift from subsistence farming, as more jobs searchers were ready to start self-employment (mainly found in mostly in the expanding informal sector) than farming activities

In this study, I predict that the global variation of offspring sex ratio might be influenced in part by the level of parasite stress. From an energetic standpoint, higher gestational costs of producing a male offspring could decrease male births in a population with limited resources. This implies that, any factor that limits the parental resources could be expected to favor female offspring production. Human sex ratio at birth (SRB) is believed to be influenced by numerous socioeconomic, biological, and environmental factors. Here, I test a prediction that parasite stress, by virtue of its effects on the general health condition, may limit the parental investment ability and therefore could influence the SRB at the population level. The statistical analysis supports this prediction, and show that the level of parasite stress has a significant inverse relation with population SRB across the world. Further, this relation is many-folds stronger than the association of SRB with other factors, like; polygyny, fertility, latitude, and son-preference. Hence, I propose that condition affecting ability of parasites (but not adaptive significance) could be a likely causal basis for the striking variation of SRB across populations.

Male and female teachers are employed in NSW public schools across all stages of learning.

Data Notes:

• Teachers who were on leave without pay for 12 months or more at 30 June of each year are not included in these tables.

Data Source:

• Human Resources. NSW Department of Education.

This dataset contains data on population by sex and age on the basis of the results of the Census Data of Lithuania, which was carried out on 17 September 1923.

Abstract

On 17 December 2015, the General Director of General Statistic Office issued Decision No 1160/QD-TCTK on the 2016 Labour Force survey, along with its survey plan. The purpose of the survey was to collect the information on 2016 labor market participation from those people who are 15 years old and above currently residing in Vietnam; regarded as a basic for aggregating and compiling national statistical indicators on labor, employment, unemployment and income. These results would support for ministries and branches assessing and comparing the changes in labour market among quarters within the reference year as well as with those of previous annual labour force surveys conducted by GSO. These results would be also considered as a basic to develop and plan policies on human resource development; activities of investment, production and business accordant with the development trend on labor market; as well as to access and apply International Labor Organization’s updated recommendations on labor and employment, especially in term of “labor under-utilization” into the reality of Vietnam. The statistics would be aggregated quarterly for the national and regional levels; and yearly for the provincial level.

Geographic coverage

Whole country.

Analysis unit

• Households
• Individuals ages 15 and above

Universe

Population ages 15 and over (working age population).

Kind of data

Sample survey data [ssd]

Sampling procedure

Sampling frame The sample of 2016 Labor Force Survey is the 2 stage stratified sample in order to ensure the presentative of quarterly aggregated statistics for the whole country, urban/rural, 6 social economic regions, Hanoi and Hochiminh cities as well as annually aggregated ones for 63 provinces/cities. Each province/city would constitute a main stratum with two sub-stratums namely urban and rural ones. The sampling frame is based on the 2015 Inter-censal Population and Housing Survey's selected enumeration areas.

Sample size The 2016 Labor Force Survey was conducted with the sample size of 50.640 households/quarter, (that is, equivalent to 16.880 households/month). The sample size was designed and allocated to ensure the statistical significance/ preventative of quarterly aggregated statistics at regional level and annually aggregated ones at provincial level.

Sampling deviation

The sample of this survey is stratified into 2 stages and designed as follows:

• Stage 1 (selecting EAs): Each province/city will constitute a main stratum divided into 2 sub stratums (of which, one will be representative for urban areas and the other is for rural areas). At this stage, list of provincial enumeration areas (the master sample frame – taken from the 1/4/2014 Inter-censal Population and Housing Survey’s 20% sample) will be divided into 2 independent sub-sample frames (urban and rural), and EAs will be selected by the method of probability proportional to size - PPS.

• Stage 2 (selecting households): At each selected EA (that is determined in stage 1), after updating the EA and making the list of households, the updated list of households will be divided into 2 groups (defined as the upper/first and the lower/ second half of the list of households). Then, at each half, 15 households will be selected systematically.

In order to improve the design efficiency and ensure to the reliability of survey sample, the sample will be selected alternately (under the 2-2-2 rotation). By this way, each EA will be divided into 02 rotational groups, whose households will be selected into sample in two adjacent quarters, and then excluded in 2 succeeding adjacent quarters, finally selected again into the sample in 2 following adjacent quarters. Each EA will be selected into the sample 4 times during a year at most.

Mode of data collection

Face-to-face [f2f]

Research instrument

Single questionnaire covering: - Household characteristcs - Individual characterists for those ages 15 and over as well as information on economic activity or inactivity

Response rate

Residence/Socio-economic region Total Male Female Labor force participation rate Entire country 100.0 100.0 100.0 77.5 Urban 31.9 32.0 31.9 71.0 Rural 68.1 68.0 68.1 81.0

Population sizes of men who have sex with men and females who sell sex, by age and UNICEF region.