The dissertation consists of three chapters relating to the measurement of immigration policies, which developed out of my work as an initial co-author of the International Migration Policy and Law Analysis (IMPALA) Database Project. The first chapter entitled, “Brain Gain? Measuring skill bias in U.S. migrant admissions policy,” develops a conceptual and operational definition of skill bias. I apply the measure to new data revealing the level of skill bias in U.S. migrant admissions policy between 1965 and 2008. Skill bias in U.S. migrant admissions policy is both a critical determinant of the skill composition of the migrant population and a response to economic and public demand for highly skilled migrants. However, despite its central role, this is the first direct, comprehensive, annual measure of skill bias in U.S. migrant admissions policy. The second chapter entitled, “Stalled in the Senate: Explaining change in US migrant admissions policy since 1965,” presents new data characterizing change in U.S. migrant admissions policy as both expansive and infrequent over recent decades. I present a new theory of policy change in U.S. migrant admissions policy that incorporates the role of supermajoritarian decision making procedures and organized anti-immigration groups to better account for both the expansive nature and t he infrequency of policy change. The theory highlights the importance of a coalition of immigrant advocacy groups, employers and unions in achieving policy change and identifies the conditions under which this coalition is most likely to form and least likely to be blocked by an anti-immigration group opposition. The third chapter entitled, “Post-coding aggregation: A methodological principle for independent data collection,” presents a new technique developed to enable independent collection of flexible, high quality data: post-coding aggregation. Post-coding aggregation is a methodological principle that minimizes data loss, increases transparency, and grants data analysts the ability to decide how best to aggregate information to produce measures. I demonstrate how it increases the fl exibility of data use by expanding the utility of data collections for a wider range of research objectives and improves the reliability and the content validity of measures in data analysis.

Data and Stata code for replication. Abstract: This research note estimates an innovative state-level measure of antiimmigrant sentiment for use in future policy and behavioral studies. State governments are becoming increasingly active in adopting immigrant policies in the 2000s. Previous research highlights the role of public opinion, especially attitudes toward immigrants, in explaining policy priorities and outcomes. Unfortunately, most extant studies utilize political ideology or immigrant populations as rough proxies for public opinion. In this article, we estimate a reliable and valid measure of anti-immigrant sentiment at the state-level using survey aggregation with multilevel regression and poststratification (MRP) from 2004 to 2008. We compare our estimates of anti-immigrant sentiment to alternative measures of immigrant presence and political ideology in predicting multiple variations of state immigrant policies. Ultimately, we find theoretical and statistical advantages of using anti-immigrant sentiment over previous measures in predicting immigrant policies.

These files can be used to recreate the segregation measures in "The Residential Segregation of Immigrants in the United States from 1850 to 1940"For those interested in the main segregation measures, download "segmeasures.dta" file. This file can be merged based on bpl city statefip county year variables.

The North America Data Migration Market would witness market growth of 11.5% CAGR during the forecast period (2024-2031). The US market dominated the North America Data Migration Market by Country in 2023, and would continue to be a dominant market till 2031; thereby, achieving a market value of $8

This paper examines the patterns of the US and Australian immigration geography and the process of regional population diversification and the emergence of new immigrant concentrations at the regional level. It presents a new approach in the context of human migration studies, focusing on spatial relatedness between individual foreign-born groups as revealed from the analysis of their joint spatial concentrations. The approach employs a simple assumption that the more frequently the members of two population groups concentrate in the same locations the higher is the probability that these two groups can be related. Based on detailed data on the spatial distribution of foreign-born groups in US counties (2000–2010) and Australian postal areas (2006–2011) we firstly quantify the spatial relatedness between all pairs of foreign-born groups and model the aggregate patterns of US and Australian immigration systems conceptualized as the undirected networks of foreign-born groups linked by their spatial relatedness. Secondly, adopting a more dynamic perspective, we assume that immigrant groups with higher spatial relatedness to those groups already concentrated in a region are also more likely to settle in this region in future. As the ultimate goal of the paper, we examine the power of spatial relatedness measures in projecting the emergence of new immigrant concentrations in the US and Australian regions. The results corroborate that the spatial relatedness measures can serve as useful instruments in the analysis of the patterns of population structure and prediction of regional population change. More generally, this paper demonstrates that information contained in spatial patterns (relatedness in space) of population composition has yet to be fully utilized in population forecasting.

Immigration lawyers and attorneys recently experienced significant turbulence and unprecedented changes. When COVID-19 emerged, the US government implemented policy measures like visa suspensions and travel bans to curb migration and control the virus spread. Consequently, many migrants turned to immigration attorneys for support in navigating these restrictions, causing revenue to surge in 2020. In 2021, robust economic growth resulted in more spending on immigration services by individuals and businesses alike, inflating revenue in that year. The recent spike in inflation in 2022 and 2023 saw a notable decline in demand for the industry’s services as potential clients prioritized essential living expenditures, constraining revenue growth. More recently, providers have benefited from a major surge in immigration in the early 2020s, keeping revenue positive in 2022 and 2023 and producing a major surge in income in 2024. Over the past year, the US government has tightened immigration policies amid public concerns about asylum law abuse and a surge in migrants. In June 2024, former President Biden issued an order to suspend asylum rights for unauthorized individuals at the US-Mexico border when daily encounters exceed 2,500 individuals. This led to a significant drop in monthly migrant encounters and is expected to lead to a slowdown in revenue growth in 2025. Internal competition has mounted due to increased entry into the industry, constraining profit. Overall, revenue for immigration lawyers and attorneys has expanded at a CAGR of 3.3% over the past five years, reaching $9.9 billion in 2025. This includes a 2.2% climb in revenue in that year. Looking forward, the industry’s companies are poised for both challenges and opportunities. Steady economic growth is predicted over the next five years, potentially boosting disposable income, corporate profit and, therefore, revenue growth. However, looming policy changes by the Trump administration could dampen providers' prospects. The resurrection of restrictive policies, such as the "Remain in Mexico" rule, aims to limit migration, possibly slowing providers’ growth. Other policies, such as expanding the 287(g) program and attempting to end birthright citizenship, have sparked controversy and criticism. These policies may result in increased demand for immigration lawyers as pro-immigration groups seek to challenge them, potentially raising revenue for lawyers specializing in court activities. Overall, revenue for immigration lawyers and attorneys is forecast to inch upward at a CAGR of 1.7% over the next five years, reaching $10.8 billion in 2030.

The North America Cloud Migration Services Market would witness market growth of 23.9% CAGR during the forecast period (2024-2031). The US market dominated the North America Cloud Migration Services Market by Country in 2023, and would continue to be a dominant market till 2031; thereby, achieving

Immigration Service Market Outlook

The global immigration service market size was valued at approximately USD 25 billion in 2023 and is projected to reach USD 40 billion by 2032, growing at a CAGR of 5.5% during the forecast period. The growth of the immigration services market is largely fueled by increasing globalization and the consequent rise in cross-border movements, driven by both personal ambitions and corporate strategies.

One of the primary growth factors for the immigration service market is the increasing demand for skilled labor in various developed economies. Countries like the United States, Canada, Australia, and many European nations are witnessing a significant skill gap in their labor markets, prompting them to ease immigration policies and provide more opportunities for skilled workers. This has led to an increase in demand for immigration services such as visa applications, work permits, and residency services. Additionally, the aging population in many developed nations adds to the urgency of attracting younger, skilled immigrants to maintain economic stability.

Another significant growth driver is the rise of multinational corporations (MNCs) and their need to deploy human resources globally. With businesses expanding their operations across borders, there is a growing requirement for corporate immigration services to manage work permits, intra-company transfers, and compliance with local immigration laws. This trend is particularly noticeable in sectors like IT, healthcare, engineering, and finance, where specialized skills are in high demand, and talent mobility is crucial for business operations. The increasing ease of doing business internationally has also encouraged smaller enterprises to explore global markets, further boosting the demand for immigration services.

The socio-political environment also plays a crucial role in shaping the immigration service market. Political stability and favorable immigration policies in certain regions make them attractive destinations for immigrants. For instance, countries that are known for their inclusive policies and transparent immigration processes tend to attract more immigrants. Moreover, the evolving geopolitical landscape, including scenarios like Brexit or shifts in U.S. immigration policies, significantly impacts the flow of immigrants and the demand for various immigration services. These changes necessitate the continuous adaptation and evolution of immigration services to meet new regulatory requirements and client needs.

When it comes to regional analysis, North America and Europe remain dominant players in the immigration service market due to their attractive job markets and robust economies. However, the Asia Pacific region is emerging as a significant player, driven by rapid economic development and increasing opportunities in countries like China, India, Japan, and Australia. Latin America and the Middle East & Africa are also showing potential growth, albeit at a slower pace, due to improving economic conditions and political reforms in certain countries. Each region presents unique opportunities and challenges, requiring tailored strategies and services to meet the specific needs of immigrants and corporations.

In recent years, the advent of Online Visa Service has revolutionized the immigration landscape, providing a more streamlined and accessible approach to visa applications. These digital platforms allow applicants to submit their visa requests and track their progress from the comfort of their homes, eliminating the need for physical visits to embassies or consulates. The convenience offered by online services is particularly beneficial for individuals in remote locations or those with busy schedules. Moreover, online visa services often incorporate advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence and machine learning to enhance the accuracy and efficiency of the application process. This digital transformation is not only improving user experience but also reducing processing times and minimizing errors, making it a preferred choice for tech-savvy applicants and service providers alike.

Service Type Analysis

Visa services form a crucial segment of the immigration service market, addressing the fundamental need for legal entry and stay in a foreign country. This segment is highly diversified, covering various types of visas such as student visas, tourist visas, business visas, and permanent residency visas, among others. The demand for visa servi

The global international immigration services market is experiencing robust growth, driven by increasing global migration, stricter immigration policies in several countries leading to a greater need for professional assistance, and the rising affluence in emerging economies fueling demand for investment-based immigration programs. The market, estimated at $15 billion in 2025, is projected to witness a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 8% from 2025 to 2033, reaching approximately $28 billion by 2033. This growth is fueled by several factors, including the increasing complexity of immigration procedures across various countries, the rising demand for skilled workers globally, and the expansion of government-sponsored immigration programs designed to attract foreign investment and talent. The segment comprising visa processing services is the largest contributor to market revenue, followed by business investment services. Enterprise clients constitute a significant portion of the market, reflecting the growing need for streamlined immigration solutions among multinational corporations. The North American and European regions currently dominate the market, but the Asia-Pacific region is expected to show significant growth in the coming years due to rising disposable incomes and an increasing number of individuals seeking international opportunities. Competition within the market is intense, with numerous established players and emerging niche providers. Key players leverage their expertise in navigating complex immigration regulations, providing comprehensive services spanning visa applications, legal counsel, and relocation support. However, challenges exist, including evolving regulatory landscapes, varying immigration policies across different jurisdictions, and the risk of fraud and unethical practices within the industry. Companies are responding by investing in advanced technology to streamline their processes, enhance client experience, and improve transparency. Future growth will be shaped by factors such as geopolitical events, economic fluctuations in key source and destination countries, and technological advancements aimed at automating and simplifying immigration procedures. Market expansion into underserved regions, and the development of innovative service offerings, will be critical for success in this dynamic and competitive market.

The aim of the study is to analyze the mediating effect of self-esteem on the relationship between perceived discrimination and psychological well-being in South American immigrants in Chile. An analytical, cross sectional, non-experimental design was used. We evaluated 853 Peruvians and Colombians living in the northern cities of Arica, Antofagasta, and Santiago de Chile, the capital located in the center of the country. The instruments used were the Ryff Psychological Well-being Scale, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and the Perceived Discrimination Scale by Basabe, Paez, Aierdi and Jiménez-Aristizabal. We used the estimation method (RWLS) and polychoric correlation matrices, to estimate the effect size and overall fit of the direct effect models of discrimination and self-esteem on psychological well-being, and indirect and total effects of discrimination mediated by self-esteem. While both populations reported similar levels of perceived discrimination, it was found that the means in psychological well-being and self-esteem of the Colombian population were significantly higher than that of the Peruvian population. Regarding self-esteem, the results provided evidence for the possible mediating effect on the relationship between perceived discrimination and psychological well-being. This research aims to contribute to the development of interventions seeking to strengthen self-esteem in order to circumvent possible negative consequences of perceived discrimination, as a consequent, improving immigrants´ personal resources to successfully cope with the diverse demands of their new context.

Abstract

This dataset, a product of the Trade Team - Development Research Group, is part of a larger effort in the group to measure the extent of the brain drain as part of the International Migration and Development Program. It measures international skilled migration for the years 1975-2000.

The methodology is explained in: "Tendance de long terme des migrations internationals. Analyse à partir des 6 principaux pays recerveurs", Cécily Defoort.

This data set uses the same methodology as used in the Docquier-Marfouk data set on international migration by educational attainment. The authors use data from 6 key receiving countries in the OECD: Australia, Canada, France, Germany, the UK and the US.

It is estimated that the data represent approximately 77 percent of the world’s migrant population.

Bilateral brain drain rates are estimated based observations for every five years, during the period 1975-2000.

Geographic coverage

Australia, Canada, France, Germany, UK and US

Kind of data

Aggregate data [agg]

Mode of data collection

Other [oth]

Immigration Services Market Outlook

The global immigration services market size was valued at approximately USD 45 billion in 2023 and is projected to reach USD 72 billion by 2032, growing at a CAGR of 5.5% from 2024 to 2032. The market growth is primarily driven by increased globalization and the consequent rise in international migration for work, education, and family reunification purposes. With the world becoming increasingly interconnected, there is a growing need for efficient immigration services to facilitate these movements.

One of the significant growth factors is the escalating demand for skilled labor across various industries. Countries with aging populations and labor shortages are particularly keen on attracting skilled workers from abroad, which boosts the demand for immigration services. Additionally, multinational companies are expanding their operations across borders, requiring specialized services to manage employee relocations and ensure compliance with immigration laws. This trend is anticipated to continue, fueling the growth of the immigration services market over the forecast period.

Another key driver is the rising educational migration. Students worldwide are increasingly seeking educational opportunities abroad to gain international exposure and improve their career prospects. This has led to a surge in demand for visa services, documentation, and compliance assistance, particularly in countries known for their high-quality education systems. The increasing number of international students is expected to continuously support the market growth.

The advent of advanced technologies is also significantly transforming the immigration services sector. Digital platforms and tools are enhancing the efficiency and accessibility of immigration processes. Online services, including application submissions, document verification, and status tracking, are becoming more prevalent, reducing the need for physical visits to immigration offices. This shift towards digitalization not only streamlines procedures but also caters to the tech-savvy younger population, thereby further propelling market growth.

Regionally, North America holds a substantial share of the global immigration services market, driven by high immigration rates and well-established immigration frameworks. Europe follows closely, with many countries relying on immigration to address demographic challenges. The Asia Pacific region is also witnessing significant growth, fueled by increasing migration for educational and employment opportunities. Latin America and the Middle East & Africa are emerging markets, with growing awareness and adoption of professional immigration services.

Service Type Analysis

Visa services dominate the immigration services market by service type, given their critical role in enabling cross-border mobility. These services encompass various visa categories, including tourist, student, work, and family visas, each requiring specific documentation and compliance. The complexity of visa application processes and the need for accurate, timely submissions drive the demand for professional visa services. Additionally, frequent changes in visa policies and regulations necessitate expert guidance, further bolstering this segment.

Work permit services are another vital segment, catering to individuals seeking employment opportunities abroad. These services include obtaining necessary permits, ensuring compliance with local labor laws, and facilitating smooth transitions for expatriates. As companies increasingly operate on a global scale, the need for efficient work permit services grows. This segment is particularly crucial in regions with stringent labor regulations, where professional assistance can significantly streamline the process.

Green card services represent a long-term immigration solution, primarily in countries like the United States where permanent residency is highly sought after. This segment involves complex procedures, from eligibility assessment to application and interview preparation. The promise of permanent residency and eventual citizenship drives the demand for these services. The lengthy and intricate nature of green card applications underscores the importance of professional assistance, ensuring adherence to all legal requirements and improving the success rate of applications.

Citizenship services cater to individuals aiming to obtain citizenship in a foreign country. These services involve comprehensive support throughout the naturalization process, inc

Market Size statistics on the Immigration Lawyers & Attorneys industry in the US

Research on foreign nationals’ crime and victimization outcomes heavily relies on binary “immigration status” measures that fail to account for the legal parameters of U.S. citizenship and immigration laws. This study demonstrates the potential misclassification of foreign-born U.S. citizens, the sanitization of foreign nationals’ heterogeneity, and the masking effect the use of binary measures has on outcomes compared to legally informed proxy statuses. Using the Collaborative Psychiatric Epidemiological Surveys data, this study compares lifetime measures of witnessing violence and sexual victimization outcomes between birthright citizens and five proxy “statuses” as well as intra-group comparisons across foreign nationals. Three weighted multiple logistic regression models were estimated per outcome. The results reveal that using a dichotomized “U.S.-born/foreign-born” measure masks substantive differences in the outcomes. Subanalyses of foreign nationals also suggest that intragroup differences are concealed. The methodological, theoretical, and policy implications of this work are discussed.

Given increasing evidence that climate change affects the annual cycles of birds, it is important to understand the mechanisms underlying individual migration strategies and population-level patterns in partial migrants. In this study, we found that thermoregulation (body size and winter temperatures) was a key driver of American Kestrel (Falco sparverius) migration decisions. The annual proportion of migrants in the population, however, was not explained by winter weather and may be the result of differential survival. We measured stable hydrogen isotope values (δD) of talon tissues collected from 501 breeding and overwintering birds to distinguish migrant from resident kestrels in a partially migratory population of American Kestrels in southwestern Idaho in 2013–2021. We then evaluated drivers of migration decisions by assessing potential correlates of migration strategies, whether individuals switched migration strategies between years, and whether the proportion of migrants in the ...

Indicators of global adjustment of measurement models in the total sample.

The global immigration legal services market is experiencing robust growth, driven by increasing global migration, stricter immigration policies in many countries, and a rising demand for specialized legal expertise in navigating complex immigration processes. The market, estimated at $15 billion in 2025, is projected to exhibit a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 7% from 2025 to 2033, reaching approximately $25 billion by 2033. This growth is fueled by several key factors. Firstly, the rising number of immigrants, refugees, and asylees globally necessitates legal assistance for visa applications, green cards, citizenship, asylum claims, and deportation defense. Secondly, the increasing complexity of immigration laws and regulations across various jurisdictions creates a greater need for specialized legal professionals. Thirdly, the rise of technology and online platforms facilitates access to legal services but also increases the demand for skilled professionals capable of navigating these new channels effectively. The market is segmented by service type (consulting, agency, others) and application (immigrants, refugees, asylees). Consulting services currently dominate, but agency services are anticipated to witness substantial growth due to increasing demand for comprehensive immigration solutions. Significant regional variations exist. North America, particularly the United States, holds the largest market share, reflecting the high volume of immigration and robust legal infrastructure. Europe follows, driven by immigration flows within the continent and the establishment of well-defined legal frameworks. However, growth potential is strong in Asia-Pacific and Middle East & Africa regions, fueled by expanding economies and increasing migration patterns. Restraints to market growth include fluctuating government policies, economic downturns impacting legal spending, and uneven access to legal services, especially for vulnerable populations. Key players such as NVFS, SOAR, CWS, World Relief, and others are competing through service diversification, technological advancements, and strategic partnerships to capitalize on the market's growth opportunities. This dynamic environment demands proactive strategies, including robust digital marketing and effective client relationship management, for companies to maintain a competitive edge.

According to Cognitive Market Research, the global Digital Remitances market size will be USD XX million in 2025. It will expand at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of XX% from 2025 to 2031.

North America held the major market share for more than XX% of the global revenue with a market size of USD XX million in 2025 and will grow at a CAGR of XX% from 2025 to 2031.


Europe accounted for a market share of over XX% of the global revenue with a market size of USD XX million in 2025 and will grow at a CAGR of XX% from 2025 to 2031.


Asia Pacific held a market share of around XX% of the global revenue with a market size of USD XX million in 2025 and will grow at a CAGR of XX% from 2025 to 2031.


Latin America had a market share of more than XX% of the global revenue with a market size of USD XX million in 2025 and will grow at a CAGR of XX% from 2025 to 2031.


Middle East and Africa had a market share of around XX% of the global revenue and was estimated at a market size of USD XX million in 2025 and will grow at a CAGR of XX% from 2025 to 2031.

Market Drivers

The rising immigrant population and global brain drain are fueling the digital remittance market

The accelerating global movement of people—particularly from low- and middle-income nations to more developed economies—is a powerful force driving the digital remittance market. Migration today is not just about labor mobility; it's about financial connectivity. As skilled, semi-skilled, and even unskilled individuals relocate for better economic prospects, they become central agents in a transnational flow of capital—remittances—which are increasingly being digitized.

As of 2023, the international migrant population surpassed 280 million, representing over 3.5% of the world’s population (U.S. Census Bureau). Many of these migrants, including doctors, nurses, engineers, construction workers, and caregivers, contribute significantly to the labor markets in host countries while simultaneously supporting their families back home. This two-way economic impact—bolstering host economies while providing critical income to home countries—is increasingly mediated through digital remittance platforms. These figures underscore the fact that migrant workers are effectively one of the largest sources of foreign income for many nations, often surpassing both foreign aid and direct investment.

A growing share of these migrants are highly educated professionals, part of a broader trend known as "brain drain." Countries across South Asia, West Africa, and Eastern Europe are witnessing an outflow of talent, particularly in sectors like medicine, IT, and academia. While this raises challenges for the home country’s workforce development, it simultaneously boosts remittance flows as these skilled professionals tend to earn higher wages and remit more funds.

For instance,

The United Kingdom and Canada have both seen a surge in foreign-trained nurses and doctors, particularly from Nigeria, India, and the Philippines—countries that, in turn, have experienced an increase in remittance volumes. [ICN Report] 

These remittances play a vital role in supporting families and strengthening local economies, emphasizing the interconnectedness of global migration and economic stability. In Nigeria, authorities are targeting $1 billion in monthly remittance inflows, part of a broader initiative to tap diaspora capital through innovations such as a U.S. dollar-denominated diaspora bond and improved digital transfer frameworks (MSME Africa Online)

Immigration policy shifts in key remittance-sending countries like the U.S., Canada, Germany, and Gulf States have far-reaching effects on remittance volumes. Latin American economies such as Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador are particularly vulnerable to U.S. immigration changes. These three countries alone received $35 billion in remittances in 2023, primarily from migrants working in the United States. A recent report notes that U.S. election outcomes could significantly alter remittance flows, as immigration and deportation policies shape who can stay and work legally—and thus, continue to remit money (https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2023/12/18/remittance-flows-grow-2023-slower-pace-migration-development-brief).

The rising global migrant workforce—fueled b...

Immigration Control System Market Outlook

The global immigration control system market size is projected to grow significantly over the forecast period, with an estimated compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 12.5% from 2024 to 2032. In 2023, the market was valued at approximately USD 8.7 billion and is expected to reach USD 24.3 billion by 2032. This growth is largely driven by increasing international travel, stringent government regulations, and advancements in biometric technology.

The burgeoning demand for efficient and secure immigration control systems is one of the primary growth drivers in this market. Governments across the globe are investing heavily in modernizing their border control and immigration systems to enhance national security. For instance, the rise in global terrorism and illegal immigration has compelled countries to adopt advanced technologies such as biometric verification and automated border control systems. These systems not only streamline the immigration process but also significantly reduce the chances of fraudulent activities.

Another key factor contributing to the market's growth is the rapid advancement in biometric technologies. Innovations such as facial recognition, fingerprint scanners, and iris recognition systems have drastically improved the accuracy and reliability of immigration control systems. These technologies provide a higher level of security and are more efficient in processing large volumes of travelers. The adoption of biometric systems is particularly prominent in countries with high volumes of international traffic, such as the United States, China, and the United Kingdom.

The increasing globalization and rise of international business travel have also played a crucial role in the expansion of the immigration control system market. As more people travel for business, leisure, and education, the need for efficient and secure immigration control systems becomes more critical. Airports, seaports, and land borders are increasingly adopting advanced immigration control systems to manage the growing influx of travelers. This trend is expected to continue over the forecast period, further driving market growth.

Automated Border Control systems have become a pivotal component in the modernization of immigration processes. These systems utilize advanced technologies such as facial recognition and fingerprint scanning to efficiently process travelers at border points. By automating the verification process, these systems not only enhance security but also significantly reduce wait times for travelers. The integration of Automated Border Control systems is particularly beneficial in high-traffic areas like international airports, where the swift movement of people is crucial. As countries continue to face challenges related to illegal immigration and security threats, the adoption of such automated solutions is expected to rise, providing a seamless and secure experience for travelers.

Regionally, the market is witnessing significant growth in the Asia Pacific, North America, and Europe. The Asia Pacific region, in particular, is experiencing rapid expansion due to the increasing number of international travelers and the growing adoption of advanced technologies in countries like China, Japan, and India. In North America, the United States and Canada are leading the market due to their stringent immigration policies and significant investments in border security. Similarly, Europe is witnessing substantial growth driven by the Schengen Area's need for seamless travel across multiple countries while ensuring high security standards.

## Component Analysis

The immigration control system market can be segmented by component into hardware, software, and services. Hardware components include biometric scanners, surveillance cameras, and access control systems, which play a crucial role in the physical infrastructure of immigration control systems. The hardware segment is expected to witness significant growth due to the increasing demand for advanced security equipment at borders and points of entry. The integration of cutting-edge technologies such as AI-powered surveillance cameras and next-generation biometric scanners is further propelling the growth of this segment.

Software components, on the other hand, encompass the various applications and platforms used to manage and analyze immigration data. This includes database management systems, biometric matching software, and real-time moni

Abstract

These data consist of a long-term follow-up of applicants to a migration visa lottery. Tongan households were surveyed as migrants in New Zealand, or non-migrants in Tonga. It was used to examine the long-term impacts of international migration by comparing immigrants who had successful ballot entries in a migration lottery program, and first moved almost a decade ago, with people who had unsuccessful entries into those same ballots. It was additionally used to study how migrating from a poor country to a rich country affects economic beliefs, preference parameters, and household decision-making efficiency. In a ten-year follow-up survey of applicants to a migration lottery program we elicit risk and time preferences and pro-market beliefs for the migrants and the unsuccessful applicants. The successful and the unsuccessful applicants are each linked to closest relative households, who would stay in the home country if the applicant moved, to play lab-in-the-field games that measure intra-family trust and the efficiency of intra-family decision-making.

Geographic coverage

The survey covers Tongans who applied to the 2002-05 Pacific Access Category migration visa program, along with linked households of their family members. This involved surveying in both New Zealand and Tonga (along with a small number of surveys of movers to third countries).

Analysis unit

Data are collected at both the individual and household level

Kind of data

Sample survey data [ssd]

Sampling procedure

Our population of interest consists of entrants to the 2002 to 2005 PAC migration lotteries. There were a total of 4,696 principal applicants of whom 367 were randomly selected as ballot winners (figure 2). Official records provided by the New Zealand immigration authorities in late 2012 show that 307 of these winners (84%) had residency applications approved and had ever migrated to New Zealand. The remaining 60 ballot winners did not migrate and are thus non-compliers to the treatment of migration.

Our main survey involved an extensive face-to-face interview, which also collected anthropometrics, blood pressure, peak lung flow, and included lab-in-the-field games. Of the 307 principal applicants ever migrating to New Zealand, 133 completed the full survey between late 2013 and the end of 2014. In order to bolster our sample size, in early 2015 we fielded a shortened survey that did not include health measurements or the lab-in-field games. This was mainly done as a telephone interview and was designed to reach those who had on-migrated beyond New Zealand or were located in parts of New Zealand that were impractical for face-to-face interviewing, although we also learned, through snowball effects, of more migrants in our face-to-face survey area and gave them the short survey as well. Overall, 61 additional ballot winners who had ever migrated to New Zealand were given the short survey, including 11 who had now on-migrated to Australia (ten) and the UK (one). In total, we were able to survey 194 households with principal applicants who ever migrated to New Zealand after winning the ballot.

We had even less information available for the ballot losers and non-compliers since these individuals had not filled out residency applications. We therefore used the same surveying approach for these groups as we had in our previous survey, which was to sample from the same villages in Tonga from which our migrants originated. Out of 4329 ballot losers, 143 were administered the long form survey and 39 the short survey (of which nine had subsequently moved to New Zealand through alternative pathways, including by winning a later round of the PAC lottery). Finances limited us to this relatively small sample, but, based on our previous research, we judged that it would give us enough power to measure economically significant impacts. An advantage of surveying from the same origin villages is that we can implicitly control for any unobserved characteristics that vary spatially in Tonga. Finally, we have a small sample of nine non-compliers; six who received the long survey and three the short survey. This is out of a population of 60 non-compliers, which hence made it difficult to find many individuals in this group.

Mode of data collection

Face-to-face [f2f]

Research instrument

Four separate questionnaires were administered: - a survey for migrant households in New Zealand - a survey for non-migrant households in Tonga - a survey of linked partner households - a short survey