Infant mortality has been falling in Bangladesh in the past decade, from 35.6 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2012 to 24.1 in 2022. This figure helps to assess the overall healthcare system’s efficacy, because childbirth and infant care require more direct patient care than any other period of life. Similarly, measures taken to combat infant mortality often have spillover effects, improving the entire healthcare system. Population in Bangladesh Bangladesh has one of the highest population densities in the world. While the economy is growing at a fair rate, gross domestic product (GDP) per capita is still low. This points to Bangladesh’s status as a developing nation. However, these indicators also suggest that the country continues to flourish. This development can benefit a significant number of people. Other development indicators As health outcomes improve, life expectancy should follow. This will lead to an upward shift in the population pyramid, which measures the age structure in a country. Such a change means that there are more workers in the medium term, increasing the country’s productivity. Productivity growth then enables more expenditure on health care, creating a virtuous cycle. For this reason, experts follow infant mortality closely.

In the early 1950s, the infant mortality rate in the area of present-day Bangladesh was estimated to be 211 deaths per thousand live births, meaning that more than two of every ten babies born in these years would not survive past their first birthday. While infant mortality would decline steadily throughout most of the late-20th century, infant mortality rates would briefly spike in the early 1970s, as a result of the Bangladesh War of Independence in 1971, the famine of 1974, and the transition period into independence. However, the decline in Bangladesh's infant mortality rate would largely resume upon its pre-war trajectory from the late 1970s onwards, and continue to decline well into the 21st century. As Bangladesh continues to see improvements in access to healthcare and nutrition, it is estimated in 2020, that for every thousand children born in Bangladesh, over 97 percent will live beyond the age of one year.

By the early 1870s, the child mortality rate of the area of modern-day Bangladesh was estimated to be just over five hundred deaths per thousand live births, meaning that more than half of all infants born in these years would not survive past their fifth birthday. Child mortality would steadily climb towards the end of the 19th century, to a rate of almost 57 percent, as a series of famines would result in significant declines in access to nutrition and the increased displacement of the population. However, after peaking at just over 565 deaths per thousand births at the turn of the century, the British colonial administration partitioned the Bengal region (a large part of which lies in present-day India), which would begin to bring some bureaucratic stability to the region, improving healthcare and sanitation.

Child mortality would largely decline throughout the 20th century, with two temporary reversals in the late 1940s and early 1970s. The first of these can be attributed in part to disruptions in government services and mass displacement of the country’s population in the partitioning of India and Pakistan following their independence from the British Empire; during which time, present-day Bangladesh became East Pakistan. The second reversal would occur in the early 1970s, as a side effect for the Bangladesh Liberation War, the famine of 1974, and the subsequent transition to independence. Outside of these reversals, child mortality would decline significantly in the 20th century, and by the turn of the century, child mortality in Bangladesh would fall below one hundred deaths per thousand births; less than a fifth of the rate at the beginning of the century. In the past two decades, Bangladesh's child mortality has continued its decline to roughly a third of this rate, due to improvements in healthcare access and quality in the country; in 2020, it was estimated that for every thousand children born in Bangladesh, almost 97 percent will survive past the age of five years.

BackgroundMaternal tetanus toxoid (MTT) vaccination during pregnancy remains an important factor for reducing infant mortality globally, especially in developing nations, including Bangladesh. Despite commendable progress in reducing child mortality through widespread MTT vaccination during pregnancy, the issue still exists. This analysis explores the impact of MTT vaccination on neonatal mortality in Bangladesh and identifies associated factors.MethodsThis research utilizes data from the 2019 Bangladesh Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS). The dataset consists of 23,402 cases; among them, 587 cases resulted in infant death. The outcome variable was infant mortality, which was binary. The independent variables identified as potential contributors to the cause of death included tetanus toxoid vaccination status, mode of delivery (cesarean section or not), and mother’s education level, among others. The Poisson model was employed to analyze the data.ResultsThe analyses showed that the neonatal mortality rate was 2.51%. Notably, 45.90% of mothers received the MTT vaccination during pregnancy. Among them, 23.07% received a single dose, and 22.82% took adequate doses (receiving more than two doses) and adhered to WHO guidelines. The adjusted incidence rate ratio (IRR) was 1.36, which indicates that there was a 36% higher risk of neonatal mortality for those children whose mothers did not take TT (IRR = 1.36, p = 0.081). We also found that women from middle-class households (IRR = 1.58, 95% CI = 0.98, 2.54) and women with higher parity (IRR = 1.96, 95% CI = 0.95, 4.03) also had a higher risk of newborn fatalities. A comparable trend has been observed regarding the correlation between the number of tetanus doses administered and neonatal mortality, where it also emphasizes the importance of receiving adequate doses (a minimum of 2 doses of tetanus vaccine) to mitigate neonatal mortality (adjusted IRR = 0.54, 95% CI = 0.29, 1.01) in comparison to no doses received.ConclusionAdministering a minimum of one maternal tetanus dose significantly lowers the risk of neonatal mortality. Other than Maternal Tetanus Toxoid vaccination, the analyses underscore various contributors to neonatal mortality, encompassing maternal healthcare, delivery procedures, socio-economic status, and education. Targeted interventions addressing these factors have the potential to efficiently decrease neonatal mortality rates and improve overall maternal and child health.

Female life expectancy of Bangladesh improved by 2.35% from 74.3 years in 2021 to 76.0 years in 2022. Since the 1.51% reduction in 2020, female life expectancy grew by 2.78% in 2022. Life expectancy at birth indicates the number of years a newborn infant would live if prevailing patterns of mortality at the time of its birth were to stay the same throughout its life.

The row-wise proportional distribution across various categories.

The crude birth rate in Bangladesh declined to 17.48 live births per 1,000 inhabitants in 2022. Therefore, 2022 marks the lowest rate during the observed period. The crude birth rate is the annual number of live births in a given population, expressed per 1,000 people. When looked at in unison with the crude death rate, the rate of natural increase can be determined.Find more statistics on other topics about Bangladesh with key insights such as fertility rate of women aged between 15 and 19 years old, number of refugees residing, and total life expectancy at birth.

Coverage probability deviance and mean width of confidence interval (CI) during out-of-sample period (2007:2016) from FDA method for Matlab HDSS.

Describing the effect of the Safe Delivery Incentive Programme on women of different socioeconomic and sociodemographic strata. To explore the reasons why women having their first baby were more likely to have heard of Safe Delivery Incentive Programme (SDIP), and to have received the incentive than women with more than one child. This data collection is the second out of four collections, representing Phase B. The other 3 collections are linked below in ‘Related resources’.
Our qualitative data collection was done in two phases. In Phase A of the project, we sought to understand how socioeconomic and sociodemographic status of women affects women’s group attendance. Phase A of the project was conducted in all trial sites. The data are reported under ‘part 1’. In Phase B of the project, we primarily sought to explain our quantitative findings relating to the equity impact of the women’s groups intervention on neonatal mortality and health behaviours. This was done only in those sites where the trials had shown a substantial and statistically significant impact on neonatal mortality (rural India, Nepal-Makwanpur, Bangladesh, and Malawi). The data are reported under ‘part 3’. We conducted other, smaller, studies as part of Phase B of our project in the sites where the trial findings where either not yet published at the time of our study (Nepal-Dhanusha) or where the trial showed no impact on neonatal mortality (urban India). The data for these smaller, site-specific studies, are reported under ‘part 2’ (Nepal-Dhanusha) and ‘part 4’ (urban India).

Progress towards the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) has been uneven. Poor and otherwise disadvantaged groups lag behind their more fortunate compatriots for most MDGs.To make things worse, effective interventions are known, but rarely reach those who need them most. Unfortunately, little is known about how to effectively reach poor and otherwise disadvantaged groups, and how to address socio-economic inequalities in mortality. The project aims to fill these gaps by generating evidence on: (1) how socio-economic inequalities translate into inequalities in newborn and maternal mortality; (2) how to address the exclusion of poor and otherwise disadvantaged groups from efforts to achieve the MDGs; (3) how to reduce socio-economic inequalities in maternal and newborn mortality. Data from 6 surveillance sites in India, Nepal, Bangladesh and Malawi are used (combined population > 2 million); Information on birth outcomes; socio-economic position, health care use and home care practices are used to describe and explain mortality inequalities. Data from randomized controlled trials of women’s group interventions are used to evaluate the equity impact of community mobilization. The project actively engages with and learns from stakeholders, drawing on their experiences regarding what works to ensure an equitable improvement in newborn and maternal health. We used existing quantitative data from randomised controlled trials of participatory women’s groups to reduce neonatal mortality. The intervention consisted of women’s groups, facilitated by a local woman. The facilitator led the groups through a participatory action cycle, in which they identified and prioritised maternal and newborn health problems in the community, collectively selected relevant strategies to address them, implemented the strategies, and evaluated the results. These trials were conducted in six large demographic surveillance sites, in India (Mumbai and Orissa & Jharkhand), rural Nepal (Dhanusha, and Makwanpur districts), rural Bangladesh and rural Malawi. The data were collected through interviews with women that have given birth in the study sites. In addition, our project collected new qualitative data in the trial sites, using focus group discussions and semi-structured interviews, to help understand our quantitative findings. The data deposited in this archive, pertain to this qualitative data collection.

This dataset is the result of the household survey conducted to gather data at baseline as a part of an impact evaluation study of Alive & Thrive (A&T) interventions delivered through Building Resources Across Communities' (BRAC) Essential Health Care (EHC) Program in Bangladesh. The objective of the impact evaluation study is to evaluate the synergistic impact of A&T’s community component along with media communications and private sector activities such as the promotion and integration of micronutrient powders. A&T is a six-year initiative to facilitate change for improved infant and young child feeding (IYCF) practices at scale in Bangladesh, Ethiopia, and Viet Nam. The goal of A&T is to reduce avoidable death and disability due to suboptimal IYCF in the developing world by increasing exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) until 6 months of age and reducing stunting of children 0-24 months of age. In Bangladesh, A&T is working with the government, nongovernmental organizations, and private initiatives to support the implementation of the National IYCF Strategy and Action Plan. The BRAC organization is delivering A&T’s community interventions within its EHC Program and its Maternal, Neonatal, and Child Health (MNCH) Program. BRAC’s frontline health workers, known as Shasthya Shebika and Shasthya Kormi, delivered age-appropriate IYCF counseling and support services during home visits, antenatal and postnatal sessions, and health forums. The baseline survey conducted as part of the impact evaluation of A&T interventions delivered through BRAC’s EHC platform had four components—(i) census, (ii) household survey, (iii) community survey, and (iv) frontline health workers survey. The census gathered data on household composition and child age, and was used to generate the sampling frame for the survey in the selected survey villages. The household survey captured the main impact indicators for A&T (WHO-recommended IYCF indicators and child anthropometry), use and exposure to A&T’s intervention platforms, and a variety of other data related to the use of the interventions. This included data on caregiver knowledge and perceptions about IYCF practices, challenges experienced in relation to IYCF practices, caregiver resources (such as education, childcare knowledge, and experience, and physical and mental health) and household resources (such as household composition, socioeconomic status, and food security). The community survey provided data on key community characteristics such as availability of infrastructure, availability, and access to education, health services, and healthcare providers. The frontline health worker survey gathered data on service provision by BRAC frontline health workers, traditional birth attendants (TBA), and village doctors. Data were also gathered on health worker time commitment, knowledge and attitude and training related to IYCF, and their job motivation, satisfaction, and supervision. The data included here are from the survey of households. The survey was conducted in the 20upazilas across 13 districts in Bangladesh between April and August 2010 by the IFPRI team in collaboration with Data Analysis and Technical Assistance, Ltd. (DATA).

The significant increase in life expectancy over the past 75 years has largely been driven by reductions in infant and child mortality, and has seen life expectancy from birth increase by 27 years between 1950 and 2024. However, this is not the only driver of increased life expectancy, as humanity has also got much better at prolonging life for adults. In 1950, 65-year-olds could expect to live for another 11 years on average, while this has risen to almost 18 years in 2024. The notable dips in life expectancy are due to China's Great Leap Forward around 1960, famine and conflict in Asia (especially Bangladesh) around 1970, and the COVID-19 pandemic in the early 2020s.

Bangladesh MHVS eligibility criteria and benefits1.

This dataset is the result of the frontline health worker (FLW) survey conducted to gather data at baseline as a part of an impact evaluation study of Alive & Thrive (A&T) interventions delivered through Building Resources Across Communities' (BRAC) Essential Health Care (EHC) Program in Bangladesh. The objective of the impact evaluation study is to evaluate the synergistic impact of A&T’s community component along with media communications and private sector activities such as the promotion and integration of micronutrient powders. A&T is a six-year initiative to facilitate change for improved infant and young child feeding (IYCF) practices at scale in Bangladesh, Ethiopia, and Viet Nam. The goal of A&T is to reduce avoidable death and disability due to suboptimal IYCF in the developing world by increasing exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) until 6 months of age and reducing stunting of children 0-24 months of age. In Bangladesh, A&T is working with the government, nongovernmental organizations, and private initiatives to support the implementation of the National IYCF Strategy and Action Plan. The BRAC organization is delivering A&T’s community interventions within its EHC Program and its Maternal, Neonatal, and Child Health (MNCH) Program. BRAC’s frontline health workers, known as Shasthya Shebika and Shasthya Kormi, delivered age-appropriate IYCF counseling and support services during home visits, antenatal and postnatal sessions, and health forums. The baseline survey conducted as part of the impact evaluation of A&T interventions delivered through BRAC’s EHC platform had four components—(i) census, (ii) household survey, (iii) community survey, and (iv) frontline health workers survey. The census gathered data on household composition and child age, and was used to generate the sampling frame for the survey in the selected survey villages. The household survey captured the main impact indicators for A&T (WHO-recommended IYCF indicators and child anthropometry), use and exposure to A&T’s intervention platforms, and a variety of other data related to the use of the interventions. This included data on caregiver knowledge and perceptions about IYCF practices, challenges experienced in relation to IYCF practices, caregiver resources (such as education, childcare knowledge, and experience, and physical and mental health) and household resources (such as household composition, socioeconomic status, and food security). The community survey provided data on key community characteristics such as availability of infrastructure, availability, and access to education, health services, and healthcare providers. The frontline health worker survey gathered data on service provision by BRAC frontline health workers, traditional birth attendants (TBA), and village doctors. Data were also gathered on health worker time commitment, knowledge and attitude and training related to IYCF, and their job motivation, satisfaction, and supervision. Two questionnaires were developed for frontline health workers survey—(i) Shasthya Shebika (SS) questionnaire, and (ii) Shasthya Kormi (SK) questionnaire. The data included here are from the survey of Shasthya Kormi. The survey was conducted in the 20 upazilas across 13 districts in Bangladesh between April and August 2010 by the IFPRI team in collaboration with Data Analysis and Technical Assistance, Ltd. (DATA).

The rise in the number of facility-based births in Bangladesh has been accompanied by a caesarean section (CS) epidemic. The current CS rate is 45% and while many are performed when medically unnecessary, there is still maternal mortality due to lack of access to CS. A significant contributor to the rising CS rates in Bangladesh is repeat CS. Evidence from high-income settings has shown that vaginal birth after caesarean section (VBAC) is safe and should be recommended for women with one previous CS, however, its practice in Bangladesh is low. VBAC has the potential to help reduce unnecessary CS in Bangladesh. As obstetricians play a significant role in birth decision-making, their opinions, and perspectives on barriers to VBAC need to be explored. This study will address a gap in the literature exploring barriers and enablers to promoting VBAC from the level of the obstetric decision-maker. This qualitative study was conducted in the Dhaka Division of Bangladesh in July 2023. Criterion sampling was used to select obstetricians for in-depth semi-structured interviews. Seven interviews were conducted in a private hospital in Dhaka city and five interviews were conducted in a non-governmental organisation (NGO) hospital outside Dhaka city. Ethical approval was received from the relevant organisations in both Liverpool and Bangladesh. The thematic analysis gave rise to three main themes: “policy awareness and national situation”, “reasons for practice decisions” and “ways to improve service delivery”. Despite good awareness of VBAC policies and appreciation of its benefits, obstetricians expressed a preference for repeat CS. From the perspective of obstetricians, the main barriers to VBAC practice are related to the structure and function of the health system. To create an environment that will enable safe practice of VBAC, health system improvement and community awareness of the benefits of normal vaginal birth are required.

This dataset is the result of the frontline health workers survey that was conducted to gather data at baseline within the context of an overall evaluation of the franchise model for Alive & Thrive (A&T) in Viet Nam. The overall aims of the evaluation were to assess the impact of the franchise model on (1) age-appropriate IYCF practices among children <2 years of age and (2) stunting among children 2-5 years of age. A&T is an initiative funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation to reduce undernutrition and death caused by suboptimal IYCF practices in three countries (Viet Nam, Bangladesh, and Ethiopia) over a period of six years (2009-2014). The goal of A&T is to reduce avoidable death and disability due to suboptimal IYCF in the developing world by increasing exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) until 6 months of age and reducing the stunting of children under two years of age. A&T applied principles of social franchising within the government health system to deliver the interventions. A&T’s Viet Nam strategy is designed to support improvements in infant and young child feeding (IYCF) in three key ways: (1) improving policy and regulatory environments; (2) shaping IYCF demand and practice; and (3) increasing supply, demand, and use of fortified complementary foods. In order to achieve this, the A&T Viet Nam program has been divided into three main focus areas namely advocacy, community, and the private sector. In addition, a communications component is integrated into each of these focus areas to support their activities. Among several activities, the franchise model is a core initiative of the community model to provide quality nutrition counseling to women and families at health facilities at all levels. Implemented in cooperation with the Vietnamese government and select private clinics, franchises will deliver a package of focused IYCF counseling services to pregnant women, lactating mothers, and their families, based on a franchise service package. Focused training and capacity building for healthcare workers will be undertaken to enable the health system to provide franchise services. Individualized services will be supported through mass media campaigns aimed at generating demand for franchise services and promoting optimal IYCF practices. The baseline survey was conducted in 40 communes across four provinces, Thai Nguyen, Thanh Hoa, Quang Ngai, and Vinh Long, between June and August 2010 by the IFPRI team in collaboration with the Institute of Social and Medicine Studies (ISMS). The survey included four components—(i) household survey, (ii) community survey, (iii) frontline health workers survey, and (iv) health facility assessments survey. The commune health center staff survey data provide information on the staff knowledge and attitudes related to IYCF practices, the training they had previously received on nutrition, their IYCF-related activities and time commitment, and their job motivation and satisfaction.

Cumulative survivor function to estimate the probability of postpartum modern family planning uptake among women who had given birth in three years preceding the survey, BDHS, 2017–18 (n  =  4081).

Unadjusted and adjusted associations of perinatal mortality with high-risk fertility behaviour, number of high-risk fertility behaviour, unavoidable high-risk fertility behaviour, and no high-risk fertility behaviour, Bangladesh 2017/18.

In 1800, the population of the area of modern-day Pakistan was estimated to be just over 13 million. Population growth in the 19th century would be gradual in the region, rising to just 19 million at the turn of the century. In the early 1800s, the British Empire slowly consolidated power in the region, eventually controlling the region of Pakistan from the mid-19th century onwards, as part of the British Raj. From the 1930s on, the population's growth rate would increase as improvements in healthcare (particularly vaccination) and sanitation would lead to lower infant mortality rates and higher life expectancy. Independence In 1947, the Muslim-majority country of Pakistan gained independence from Britain, and split from the Hindu-majority country of India. In the next few years, upwards of ten million people migrated between the two nations, during a period that was blemished by widespread atrocities on both sides. Throughout this time, the region of Bangladesh was also a part Pakistan (as it also had a Muslim majority), known as East Pakistan; internal disputes between the two regions were persistent for over two decades, until 1971, when a short but bloody civil war resulted in Bangladesh's independence. Political disputes between Pakistan and India also created tension in the first few decades of independence, even boiling over into some relatively small-scale conflicts, although there was some economic progress and improvements in quality of life for Pakistan's citizens. The late 20th century was also characterized by several attempts to become democratic, but with intermittent periods of military rule. Between independence and the end of the century, Pakistan's population had grown more than four times in total. Pakistan today Since 2008, Pakistan has been a functioning democracy, with an emerging economy and increasing international prominence. Despite the emergence of a successful middle-class, this is prosperity is not reflected in all areas of the population as almost a quarter still live in poverty, and Pakistan ranks in the bottom 20% of countries according to the Human Development Index. In 2020, Pakistan is thought to have a total population of over 220 million people, making it the fifth-most populous country in the world.

This dataset is the result of the household survey that was conducted to gather data at endline within the context of an overall evaluation of the franchise model for Alive & Thrive (A&T) in Viet Nam. The overall aims of the evaluation were to assess the impact of the franchise model on (1) age-appropriate IYCF practices among children <2 years of age and (2) stunting among children 2-5 years of age. A&T is an initiative funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation to reduce undernutrition and death caused by suboptimal IYCF practices in three countries (Viet Nam, Bangladesh, and Ethiopia) over a period of six years (2009-2014). The goal of A&T is to reduce avoidable death and disability due to suboptimal IYCF in the developing world by increasing exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) until 6 months of age and reducing the stunting of children under two years of age. A&T applied principles of social franchising within the government health system to deliver the interventions. A&T’s Viet Nam strategy is designed to support improvements in infant and young child feeding (IYCF) in three key ways: (1) improving policy and regulatory environments; (2) shaping IYCF demand and practice; and (3) increasing supply, demand, and use of fortified complementary foods. In order to achieve this, the A&T Viet Nam program has been divided into three main focus areas namely advocacy, community, and the private sector. In addition, a communications component is integrated into each of these focus areas to support their activities. Among several activities, the franchise model is a core initiative of the community model to provide quality nutrition counseling to women and families at health facilities at all levels. Implemented in cooperation with the Vietnamese government and select private clinics, franchises delivered a package of focused IYCF counseling services to pregnant women, lactating mothers, and their families, based on a franchise service package. Focused training and capacity building for healthcare workers were undertaken to enable the health system to provide franchise services. Individualized services were supported through mass media campaigns aimed at generating demand for franchise services and promoting optimal IYCF practices. The impact evaluation used a cluster-randomized controlled design with repeated cross-sectional baseline and endline surveys in the same communes within four provinces, Thai Nguyen, Thanh Hoa, Quang Ngai, and Vinh Long. The endline survey included three components—(i) household survey and anthropometric measurements of children and mothers, (ii) community and health facility assessments survey, and (iii) frontline health workers survey. The household survey data provide information on the main impact indicators (child anthropometry and WHO-recommended IYCF indicators); psychosocial/behavioral determinants (maternal IYCF knowledge, beliefs, self-efficacy and intentions); and client access and exposure to, and utilization of A&T services. It also captured influential underlying factors at the child level (child illness, developmental milestones, hygiene and hand washing), maternal characteristics (education, time constraints, and child care arrangement), as well as household characteristics (social economic status, economic shocks, and food security).

The World Health Organization recognises Routine Health Information System (RHIS) data as integral to data-driven health systems; needed to improve intrapartum outcomes for maternal and newborn health worldwide. However, research in Bangladesh and Tanzania suggests that mode of birth affects register data accuracy, but little is known about why. To address this gap, we undertook qualitative research in these two public-sector health systems. We conducted 44 in-depth interviews in Bangladesh (Sept-Dec 2020) and 35 in Tanzania (Feb-April 2023). Participants included health and data professionals, managers, and leaders from sub-national and national levels. Thematic analysis was undertaken with inductive and deductive coding. Emerging themes were compared/organised using determinants outlined in the Performance of Routine Information System Management (PRISM) framework. Mode of birth affected RHIS data as one part in a multidimensional system; having a caesarean changed the location of birth, availability of health professionals, and the care pathway, impacting data flow and documentation processes at facility-level. Standardised registers were available in the labour wards, but not in all operating theatres. Health professionals in both countries described feeling overwhelmed by duplicative data tasks and competing clinical care responsibilities, especially in labour wards with low staffing ratios. Health professionals perceived electronic data systems to increase duplication (for all modes of birth), along with other organisational factors. In conclusion, mode of birth influenced processes for routine data collection and use because it affected where, what, when, and by whom data were recorded. We found challenges for capturing register data, leading to potential data gaps, especially for caesarean births. Our findings suggest a broader lens is needed to improve the systems, collection, and use of individual-level data for aggregation, not just registers. Co-design of RHIS processes and tools could rationalise the data burden and increase availability and quality of perinatal data for use.