How do White Americans operationalize Whiteness? This paper argues religion, in conjunction with country of origin, alters how self-identified White Americans assign ethnoracial labels to other groups. To test the role of religion on White assignment, this paper uses the case of Muslims and Middle Eastern and North African (MENA) Americans. Although MENA individuals are legally classified as White in the US, they are subjected to racialization and often conflated with Muslims. Using historical analysis of racial prerequisite court cases and a survey experiment, I find country of origin and religion play separate, additive roles in racial assignment decisions, both historically and today. White assignment is constructed of both country of origin and religion. These findings also extend to perceived skin tone. This is important because many of the benefits that come from being White depend on whether others perceive an individual as White. Understanding the constitutive parts of Whiteness compels research to be specific when discussing White people and why some “White” people are excluded.

662 555 (number) в 2019. According to U.S. Office of Management and Budget (OMB), “White” refers to a person having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa. The White racial category includes people who marked the “White” checkbox. It also includes respondents who reported entries such as Caucasian or White; European entries, such as Irish, German, and Polish; Middle Eastern entries, such as Arab, Lebanese, and Palestinian; and North African entries, such as Algerian, Moroccan, and Egyptian.

5.554.165 (number) in 2019. According to U.S. Office of Management and Budget (OMB), “White” refers to a person having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa. The White racial category includes people who marked the “White” checkbox. It also includes respondents who reported entries such as Caucasian or White; European entries, such as Irish, German, and Polish; Middle Eastern entries, such as Arab, Lebanese, and Palestinian; and North African entries, such as Algerian, Moroccan, and Egyptian.

Data and do-file to replicate all analyses reported in "Middle Eastern and North African Americans may not be perceived, nor perceive themselves to be White" forthcoming in PNAS.

This dataset tracks annual white student percentage from 1989 to 2016 for Milford Middle East vs. Massachusetts and Milford School District

3.532.048 (number) in 2019. According to U.S. Office of Management and Budget (OMB), “White” refers to a person having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa. The White racial category includes people who marked the “White” checkbox. It also includes respondents who reported entries such as Caucasian or White; European entries, such as Irish, German, and Polish; Middle Eastern entries, such as Arab, Lebanese, and Palestinian; and North African entries, such as Algerian, Moroccan, and Egyptian.

Description of the Healthy Minds Study sample of Middle Eastern/Arab American (MENA) college students and non-MENA white college students.

Middle East and Africa Body in White-BIW market size is USD 1630.84 million in 2024 and will expand at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 2.2% from 2024 to 2031.

Access Middle East Jasmine Rice Industry Overview which includes Middle East country analysis of (Saudi Arabia, Turkey, UAE, Egypt, Qatar, Rest of Middle East), market split by Product Type, Application, Sales Channel, Consumer

Middle East and Africa Instant rice market size is USD 43.02 million in 2024 and will expand at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 5.9% from 2024 to 2031

Middle East and Africa accounted for a share of more than 3.00% of the global revenue due to several variables.

This dataset tracks annual white student percentage from 1993 to 2020 for Ben. Franklin Middle-east vs. Virginia and Franklin County Public Schools School District

This dataset tracks annual white student percentage from 1988 to 2002 for Angleton Middle-east vs. Texas and Angleton Independent School District

Historical Dataset of Angleton Middle-east is provided by PublicSchoolReview and contain statistics on metrics:Total Students Trends Over Years (1988-2002),Total Classroom Teachers Trends Over Years (1987-2002),Student-Teacher Ratio Comparison Over Years (1987-2002),Asian Student Percentage Comparison Over Years (1989-2001),Hispanic Student Percentage Comparison Over Years (1988-2002),Black Student Percentage Comparison Over Years (1988-2002),White Student Percentage Comparison Over Years (1988-2002),Diversity Score Comparison Over Years (1988-2002),Free Lunch Eligibility Comparison Over Years (1992-2002),Reduced-Price Lunch Eligibility Comparison Over Years (1999-2002)

Historical Dataset of Gahanna East Middle School is provided by PublicSchoolReview and contain statistics on metrics:Total Students Trends Over Years (1987-2023),Total Classroom Teachers Trends Over Years (1990-2023),Distribution of Students By Grade Trends,Student-Teacher Ratio Comparison Over Years (1990-2023),Asian Student Percentage Comparison Over Years (1993-2023),Hispanic Student Percentage Comparison Over Years (1995-2023),Black Student Percentage Comparison Over Years (1991-2023),White Student Percentage Comparison Over Years (1991-2023),Two or More Races Student Percentage Comparison Over Years (2013-2023),Diversity Score Comparison Over Years (1991-2023),Free Lunch Eligibility Comparison Over Years (1992-2023),Reduced-Price Lunch Eligibility Comparison Over Years (2001-2023),Reading and Language Arts Proficiency Comparison Over Years (2011-2022),Math Proficiency Comparison Over Years (2011-2022),Science Proficiency Comparison Over Years (2021-2022),Overall School Rank Trends Over Years (2011-2022)

Historical Dataset of Eastern Middle School is provided by PublicSchoolReview and contain statistics on metrics:Total Students Trends Over Years (1987-2023),Total Classroom Teachers Trends Over Years (1987-2023),Distribution of Students By Grade Trends,Student-Teacher Ratio Comparison Over Years (1987-2023),Asian Student Percentage Comparison Over Years (1991-2023),Hispanic Student Percentage Comparison Over Years (1991-2023),Black Student Percentage Comparison Over Years (1989-2022),White Student Percentage Comparison Over Years (1991-2023),Two or More Races Student Percentage Comparison Over Years (2013-2023),Diversity Score Comparison Over Years (1991-2023),Free Lunch Eligibility Comparison Over Years (1994-2023),Reduced-Price Lunch Eligibility Comparison Over Years (1999-2023),Reading and Language Arts Proficiency Comparison Over Years (2010-2022),Math Proficiency Comparison Over Years (2010-2022),Science Proficiency Comparison Over Years (2021-2022),Overall School Rank Trends Over Years (2010-2022)

This dataset tracks annual white student percentage from 1991 to 2023 for Gahanna East Middle School vs. Ohio and Gahanna-Jefferson City School District

Historical Dataset of Imagine East Mesa Middle School is provided by PublicSchoolReview and contain statistics on metrics:Total Students Trends Over Years (2007-2023),Distribution of Students By Grade Trends,American Indian Student Percentage Comparison Over Years (2009-2022),Asian Student Percentage Comparison Over Years (2009-2023),Hispanic Student Percentage Comparison Over Years (2007-2023),Black Student Percentage Comparison Over Years (2007-2023),White Student Percentage Comparison Over Years (2007-2023),Two or More Races Student Percentage Comparison Over Years (2013-2023),Diversity Score Comparison Over Years (2007-2023),Free Lunch Eligibility Comparison Over Years (2009-2023),Reduced-Price Lunch Eligibility Comparison Over Years (2008-2023),Reading and Language Arts Proficiency Comparison Over Years (2011-2022),Math Proficiency Comparison Over Years (2011-2022),Overall School Rank Trends Over Years (2011-2022)

Historical Dataset of Middle College At Eastern Kentucky is provided by PublicSchoolReview and contain statistics on metrics:Total Students Trends Over Years (2013-2023),Total Classroom Teachers Trends Over Years (2013-2023),Student-Teacher Ratio Comparison Over Years (2013-2023),Asian Student Percentage Comparison Over Years (2014-2023),Hispanic Student Percentage Comparison Over Years (2012-2023),Black Student Percentage Comparison Over Years (2012-2013),White Student Percentage Comparison Over Years (2013-2023),Two or More Races Student Percentage Comparison Over Years (2012-2013),Diversity Score Comparison Over Years (2013-2023),Free Lunch Eligibility Comparison Over Years (2013-2023),Reduced-Price Lunch Eligibility Comparison Over Years (2013-2023),Math Proficiency Comparison Over Years (2013-2014)

Historical Dataset of Fieldcrest Middle School - East is provided by PublicSchoolReview and contain statistics on metrics:Total Students Trends Over Years (1994-2006),Total Classroom Teachers Trends Over Years (1995-2005),Distribution of Students By Grade Trends,Student-Teacher Ratio Comparison Over Years (1995-2005),Hispanic Student Percentage Comparison Over Years (1995-2005),Black Student Percentage Comparison Over Years (1993-2005),White Student Percentage Comparison Over Years (1994-2006),Diversity Score Comparison Over Years (1993-2006),Free Lunch Eligibility Comparison Over Years (2002-2006),Reduced-Price Lunch Eligibility Comparison Over Years (2002-2006)