The world's Jewish population has had a complex and tumultuous history over the past millennia, regularly dealing with persecution, pogroms, and even genocide. The legacy of expulsion and persecution of Jews, including bans on land ownership, meant that Jewish communities disproportionately lived in urban areas, working as artisans or traders, and often lived in their own settlements separate to the rest of the urban population. This separation contributed to the impression that events such as pandemics, famines, or economic shocks did not affect Jews as much as other populations, and such factors came to form the basis of the mistrust and stereotypes of wealth (characterized as greed) that have made up anti-Semitic rhetoric for centuries. Development since the Middle Ages The concentration of Jewish populations across the world has shifted across different centuries. In the Middle Ages, the largest Jewish populations were found in Palestine and the wider Levant region, with other sizeable populations in present-day France, Italy, and Spain. Later, however, the Jewish disapora became increasingly concentrated in Eastern Europe after waves of pogroms in the west saw Jewish communities move eastward. Poland in particular was often considered a refuge for Jews from the late-Middle Ages until the 18th century, when it was then partitioned between Austria, Prussia, and Russia, and persecution increased. Push factors such as major pogroms in the Russian Empire in the 19th century and growing oppression in the west during the interwar period then saw many Jews migrate to the United States in search of opportunity.

In the Middle Ages, it is believed the largest Jewish populations in the world were found in Asia, particularly across the Middle East. Of the estimated total Jewish population of 1.2 million people, over 80 percent are thought to have lived in Asia, while 13 percent lived in Europe, and the remaining six precent lived in (North) Africa. The largest populations were found on the Arabian peninsula, as well as Iran and Iraq, while the Near East (here referring to the Levant region) had a much smaller population, despite being the spiritual homeland of the Jewish people.

These figures are based on the records of Benjamin of Tudela, a Jewish traveller from the Middle Ages who provided one of the most comprehensive collections of population statistics from the period. Benjamin's writings not only recorded the number of Jews living across this part of the world, but also gave an insight into societal structures and the ordinary daily lives within Jewish communities in the medieval period. The source providing these figures, however, has adjusted some of the statistics to account for known populations that were missing from Benjamin of Tudela's records, especially in Europe and Asia.

The average for 2013 based on 21 countries was 4.3 percent. The highest value was in Israel: 76.2 percent and the lowest value was in Hungary: 0.2 percent. The indicator is available from 1960 to 2013. Below is a chart for all countries where data are available.

Jews were the dominant religious group in the Israel-Palestine region at the beginning of the first millennia CE, and are the dominant religious group there today, however, there was a period of almost 2,000 years where most of the world's Jews were displaced from their spiritual homeland. Antiquity to the 20th century Jewish hegemony in the region began changing after a series of revolts against Roman rule led to mass expulsions and emigration. Roman control saw severe persecution of Jewish and Christian populations, but this changed when the Byzantine Empire adopted Christianity as its official religion in the 4th century. Christianity then dominated until the 7th century, when the Rashidun Caliphate (the first to succeed Muhammad) took control of the Levant. Control of region split between Christians and Muslims intermittently between the 11th and 13th centuries during the Crusades, although the population remained overwhelmingly Muslim. Zionism until today Through the Paris Peace Conference, the British took control of Palestine in 1920. The Jewish population began growing through the Zionist Movement after the 1880s, which sought to establish a Jewish state in Palestine. Rising anti-Semitism in Europe accelerated this in the interwar period, and in the aftermath of the Holocaust, many European Jews chose to leave the continent. The United Nations tried facilitating the foundation of separate Jewish and Arab states, yet neither side was willing to concede territory, leading to a civil war and a joint invasion from seven Arab states. Yet the Jews maintained control of their territory and took large parts of the proposed Arab territory, forming the Jewish-majority state of Israel in 1948, and acheiving a ceasefire the following year. Over 750,000 Palestinians were displaced as a result of this conflict, while most Jews from the Arab eventually fled to Israel. Since this time, Israel has become one of the richest and advanced countries in the world, however, Palestine has been under Israeli military occupation since the 1960s and there are large disparities in living standards between the two regions.

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Final Published Version Abstract The origin and history of the Ashkenazi Jewish population have long been of great interest, and advances in high-throughput genetic analysis have recently provided a new approach for investigating these topics. We and others have argued on the basis of genome-wide data that the Ashkenazi Jewish population derives its ancestry from a combination of sources tracing to both Europe and the Middle East. It has been claimed, however, through a reanalysis of some of our data, that a large part of the ancestry of the Ashkenazi population originates with the Khazars, a Turkic-speaking group that lived to the north of the Caucasus region ~1,000 years ago. Because the Khazar population has left no obvious modern descendants that could enable a clear test for a contribution to Ashkenazi Jewish ancestry, the Khazar hypothesis has been difficult to examine using genetics. Furthermore, because only limited genetic data have been available from the Caucasus region, and because these data have been concentrated in populations that are genetically close to populations from the Middle East, the attribution of any signal of Ashkenazi-Caucasus genetic similarity to Khazar ancestry rather than shared ancestral Middle Eastern ancestry has been problematic. Here, through the integration of genotypes on newly collected samples with data from several of our past studies, we have assembled the largest data set available to date for asset assessment of Ashkenazi Jewish genetic origins. This data set contains genome-wide single-nucleotide polymorphisms in 1,774 samples from 106 Jewish and non- Jewish populations that span the possible regions of potential Ashkenazi ancestry: Europe, the Middle East, and the region historically associated with the Khazar Khaganate. The data set includes 261 samples from 15 populations from the Caucasus region and the region directly to its north, samples that have not previously been included alongside Ashkenazi Jewish samples in genomic studies. Employing a variety of standard techniques for the analysis of populationgenetic structure, we find that Ashkenazi Jews share the greatest genetic ancestry with other Jewish populations, and among non-Jewish populations, with groups from Europe and the Middle East. No particular similarity of Ashkenazi Jews with populations from the Caucasus is evident, particularly with the populations that most closely represent the Khazar region. Thus, analysis of Ashkenazi Jews together with a large sample from the region of the Khazar Khaganate corroborates the earlier results that Ashkenazi Jews derive their ancestry primarily from populations of the Middle East and Europe, that they possess considerable shared ancestry with other Jewish populations, and that there is no indication of a significant genetic contribution either from within or from north of the Caucasus region.

id - id вершины в графе

frequency - частота локус варианта

locus id снипа для поиска по базе ncbi

variant - ref/alt снипа

chrom - на какой хромосоме находится локус-вариант

position - на какой позиции в хромосоме находится локус-вариант

snp_id - id snp в ncbi

gene_name - в каком гене snp

alfa_sample_size - Выборка ALFA. The ALFA project provide aggregate allele frequency from dbGaP. More information is available on the project page including descriptions, data access, and terms of use.

alfa_freq - частота референсного аллеля по ALFA.

FC - Functional Consequence (Интрон/Экзон)

gene_description - краткое описание гена от ncbi, если есть.

Машинное обучение и анализ мутаций SNP Машинное обучение и анализ мутаций SNP - часть 2

Abstract

Three major studies have been carried out on behalf of the Kaplan Centre since 1990: by Allie Dubb in 1991 (N=1,755 households); by the Institute for Jewish Policy Research in 1998 (N=1,000 households); and by Shirley Bruk in 2005 (N=1,000 households). The Jewish Community Survey of South Africa (JCSSA) 2019 is the first national survey of the Jewish population to take place since 2005. The survey was undertaken by researchers from the Institute for Jewish Policy Research (JPR), a London-based research institute, and theKaplan Centre for Jewish Studies and Research at the University of Cape Town. The JCSSA was an online survey. Fieldwork took place between May and July 2019, and it generated a final sample size of 4,193 individuals (aged 18 and over) living in 2,402 unique households as well as those in communal institutions such as care homes, amounting to 5,287 individuals.

Analysis unit

Households and individuals

Universe

The universe for the study was all Jewish adults (those aged 18 and over) living in households and communal institutions in South Africa.

Kind of data

Survey data

Sampling procedure

A convenience sample was developed using lists provided to the research team by Jewish community leaders in South Africa. From this basis a 'snowball' sample was incorporated: anyone who completed the survey could digitally invite other Jewish people they knew to take part via a private landing page. The final sample size was 5,287 individuals. The survey report provides more detail on the sampling for the survey.

Mode of data collection

Internet

Research instrument

The survey used a single questionnaire administered online. The questionnaire collected data on disability (Question 84.1) and old age (Question 88.2) but technical problems resulted in this data not being included in the final data file.

Response rate

The final JCSSA dataset contained 4,193 individual responses from across South Africa.

Among the topics covered are the war against terrorism and Iraq; the Israel-Arab conflict; the attachment of American Jews to Israel; transatlantic relations; political and social issues in the United States; Jewish perceptions of anti-Semitism; and Jewish identity concerns. Some of the questions appearing in the survey are new, others are drawn from previous AJC surveys conducted annually since 1997. The 2003 survey was conducted for AJC by Market Facts, a leading survey-research organization. Respondents were interviewed by telephone between November 25 and December 11. The sample consisted of 1,000 self-identifying Jewish respondents selected from the Market Facts consumer mail panel. The respondents are demographically representative of the U.S. adult Jewish population on a variety of measures. (AJC 3/4/2015)

Please Note: This dataset is part of the historical CISER Data Archive Collection and is also available at the Roper Center for Public Opinion Research at https://doi.org/10.25940/ROPER-31094163. We highly recommend using the Roper Center version as they may make this dataset available in multiple data formats in the future.

Prior to 1829, the area of modern day Greece was largely under the control of the Ottoman Empire. In 1821, the Greeks declared their independence from the Ottomans, and achieved it within 8 years through the Greek War of Independence. The Independent Kingdom of Greece was established in 1829 and made up the southern half of present-day, mainland Greece, along with some Mediterranean islands. Over the next century, Greece's borders would expand and readjust drastically, through a number of conflicts and diplomatic agreements; therefore the population of Greece within those political borders** was much lower than the population in what would be today's borders. As there were large communities of ethnic Greeks living in neighboring countries during this time, particularly in Turkey, and the data presented here does not show the full extent of the First World War, Spanish Flu Pandemic and Greko-Turkish War on these Greek populations. While it is difficult to separate the fatalities from each of these events, it is estimated that between 500,000 and 900,000 ethnic Greeks died at the hands of the Ottomans between the years 1914 and 1923, and approximately 150,000 died due to the 1918 flu pandemic. These years also saw the exchange of up to one million Orthodox Christians from Turkey to Greece, and several hundred thousand Muslims from Greece to Turkey; this exchange is one reason why Greece's total population did not change drastically, despite the genocide, displacement and demographic upheaval of the 1910s and 1920s. Greece in WWII A new Hellenic Republic was established in 1924, which saw a decade of peace and modernization in Greece, however this was short lived. The Greek monarchy was reintroduced in 1935, and the prime minister, Ioannis Metaxas, headed a totalitarian government that remained in place until the Second World War. Metaxas tried to maintain Greek neutrality as the war began, however Italy's invasion of the Balkans made this impossible, and the Italian army tried invading Greece via Albania in 1940. The outnumbered and lesser-equipped Greek forces were able to hold off the Italian invasion and then push them backwards into Albania, marking the first Allied victory in the war. Following a series of Italian failures, Greece was eventually overrun when Hitler launched a German and Bulgarian invasion in April 1941, taking Athens within three weeks. Germany's involvement in Greece meant that Hitler's planned invasion of the Soviet Union was delayed, and Hitler cited this as the reason for it's failure (although most historians disagree with this). Over the course of the war approximately eight to eleven percent of the Greek population died due to fighting, extermination, starvation and disease; including over eighty percent of Greece's Jewish population in the Holocaust. Following the liberation of Greece in 1944, the country was then plunged into a civil war (the first major conflict of the Cold War), which lasted until 1949, and saw the British and American-supported government fight with Greek communists for control of the country. The government eventually defeated the Soviet-supported communist forces, and established American influence in the Aegean and Balkans throughout the Cold War. Post-war Greece From the 1950s until the 1970s, the Marshall Plan, industrialization and an emerging Tourism sector helped the Greek economy to boom, with one of the strongest growth rates in the world. Apart from the military coup, which ruled from 1967 to 1974, Greece remained relatively peaceful, prosperous and stable throughout the second half of the twentieth century. The population reached 11.2 million in the early 2000s, before going into decline for the past fifteen years. This decline came about due to a negative net migration rate and slowing birth rate, ultimately facilitated by the global financial crisis of 2007 and 2008; many Greeks left the country in search of work elsewhere, and the economic troubles have impacted the financial incentives that were previously available for families with many children. While the financial crisis was a global event, Greece was arguably the hardest-hit nation during the crisis, and suffered the longest recession of any advanced economy. The financial crisis has had a consequential impact on the Greek population, which has dropped by 800,000 in 15 years, and the average age has increased significantly, as thousands of young people migrate in search of employment.

Abstract

The survey was undertaken in 2005 and conducted face-to-face interviews with a sample of 1 000 adults from Cape Town, Durban, Pretoria and Johannesburg, where ninety percent of the country's Jewish population reside.

Geographic coverage

The survey covered selected Jewish households in Cape Town, Durban, Pretoria and Johannesburg

Analysis unit

Households and individuals

Universe

The target population of the survey consists of Jewish South Africans.

Kind of data

Sample survey data

Mode of data collection

Face-to-face [f2f]

Research instrument

A single questionnaire was used for the study

In 2022, **** grooms were married for the first time, per 1,000 single Jewish men in Israel. This reflected a decline of less than *** percent in marriage rates from the previous year. During 2020, a temporary drop in marriages occurred due to restrictions related to the coronavirus pandemic. Overall, during the observed period, the marriage rate of Jewish men at prime age, declined by about ** percent.

The Jews individuals included in various datasets are indicated, and the set of analysis carried out without using Jews genetic profiles are presented in Text S1.Population data used in the present study.

During the Second World War, the German invasion of Denmark took place on April 9, 1940, as part of Operation Weserübung. The primary aim of this campaign was the annexation of Norway, as control of the Scandinavian coast protected Germany's iron supply from Sweden and gave a tactical advantage for naval operations against the UK. Heavily outmanned and outgunned, the Danish government surrendered within a few hours, and this was the least-costly German invasion of the war (not including Austria), with just 16 Danish military fatalities on the day. Overall, modern estimates suggest that more than 6,600 Danes died as a direct result of the Second World War. Roughly half of these fatalities were civilian deaths, including upwards of 1,000 sailors killed by German submarines, and over 750 resistance fighters. However a significant share of Danes were also killed in the service of both the Axis or Allied Powers.

Danes in the service of Germany Almost one third of Danish fatalities were in the service of the German military, as over 6,000 Danish military volunteered to join the German war effort on the Eastern Front, alongside an unknown number of ethnic German volunteers (possibly 2,000) from Schleswig, along the German border. Almost 500 Danes were also killed for informing or collaborating with German authorities during the occupation; most of these were killed by the resistance during the occupation, although many were also executed after the war's conclusion.

The Danish resistance and the rescue of Denmark's Jews When compared with resistance movements in other countries, the rapid annexation of Denmark and the non-removal of the Danish government by Nazi authorities resulted in the Danish movement developing more slowly. The Danish government discouraged its citizens from rising up, and the restrictions imposed by Germany were initially less severe than in many other territories. However, resistance groups (including many military personnel) quickly formed and relayed a significant amount of information to the Allies in early years, before their actions became more violent in later years. Alongside numerous sabotage and assassination missions, a major operation of the Danish resistance was the rescue of Denmark's Jewish population. In early September 1943, German diplomat Georg Ferdinand Duckwitz learned of Hitler's order to arrest and deport Denmark's Jewish population, and secretly organized their reception in Sweden, before leaking the information to Danish authorities. Just days before the order was given, the resistance, with aid from Danish authorities, Jewish leaders, and many ordinary citizens, then smuggled over 7,000 Danish Jews and their families to Sweden. Several hundred Danish Jews were ultimately transported to concentration camps, although the majority were eventually rescued by the Danish-Swedish "white bus" missions just before the war's end. More than 99 percent of Denmark's Jews would ultimately survive the Holocaust. Duckwitz was named as one of the Righteous Among the Nations by the Israeli government in 1971, however, the Danish resistance requested not to be honored individually by Yad Vashem as theirs was a collective effort.

In 2022, **** grooms per 1,000 were married for the first time, among single Jewish men aged 25 to 29 in Israel. During the observed period, marriage rates were highest among men aged 24 to 34. Among these older age groups, marriage rates have declined over time. Interestingly, the marriage rate among younger bachelors, aged 24 and below, has increased over recent decades.

In 2023, the homicide rate among Jews and other non-Arab ethnic groups in Israel was 0.85 murders per 100,000 people. In the same year, the death rate by violent crime spiked among Arab Israelis to more than 13 times higher that of Jews. Overall, between 2019 and 2023, the fatality rate rose among both Arabs and Jews, but more drastically within Arab communities.

Despite Sweden's economic ties with Germany throughout the war, the escalation of the Holocaust saw relations turn sour, and Sweden became a safe haven for thousands of Danish and Norwegian Jews in 1943. As the Axis forces rapidly lost ground the following year, Scandinavian authorities became concerned for those prisoners detained in German territories. Swedish diplomats in Berlin were able to negotiate the repatriation of some Scandinavian prisoners in late 1944, and a series of humanitarian and smuggling missions helped map out where the remaining Danish and Norwegian prisoners were being kept. This then led to the largest rescue mission of the Second World War.

Negotiations

In February 1945, the vice-president of the Swedish Red Cross, Folke Bernadotte, met with Heinrich Himmler to negotiate the release of all Danish and Norwegian prisoners from German concentration camps. Himmler would not agree, but allowed the Swedish Red Cross to collect all Scandinavian prisoners from Germany and its territories and relocate them to relative safety at the Neuengamme camp near Hamburg (close to the Danish border). Further negotiations in March resulted in some concessions, and non-essential laborers (i.e. the elderly, sick, and children), as well as German-Swedish mothers and their children, were transferred to Sweden. On April 21, Himmler met with another Swedish representative and allowed the Red Cross to relocate thousands of Jews from various concentration camps. Himmler was one of the first top officials in the Nazi regime to realize that the war was lost, and these negotiations were part of his attempts to curry favor with the Allies. On April 23, Himmler met with Bernadotte once more and attempted to use him as an intermediary through which he offered Germany's surrender to the Western Allies, although it was ultimately rejected.

The White Buses The Swedish Red Cross rescue fleet set out in March with 75 vehicles and 250 volunteers, and roughly 1,000 people could be transported on each round trip. Soviet advances and British-American air raids directly threatened the rescue mission, therefore the Red Cross painted its fleet of buses white to distinguish that they were non-military; the "White Buses" have since come to symbolize this mission. In the following weeks, almost 6,000 Scandinavians were relocated to Neuengamme. As Neuengamme reached its capacity, German authorities relocated around 2,000 non-Scandinavian prisoners to other camps to make space. In April, Danish buses and trains were called into action to transport prisoners from Neuengamme to Scandinavia, while the Red Cross convoys began additional trips to rescue non-Scandinavians. This included many French, Belgian, and Dutch prisoners, particularly from the women's camp at Ravensbrück; the mission's preferential treatment of Scandinavian and Western European prisoners, at the expense of Eastern Europeans, has become a point of contention in recent decades. As the situation in Germany became more unstable, the convoys were often attacked, and several prisoners were killed in transit. Due to the nature and discretion of the mission, there are no official figures for the total number of people rescued in the white bus missions, and it is unclear what proportion were Jewish. However, the estimates suggest that the mission rescued over 15,000 prisoners from concentration camps in the last six weeks of the war, and helped thousands more after German surrender as part of UNRRA programs.

Im Jahr 2023 gab es weltweit rund 16,8 Millionen Juden. Davon lebten die meisten Juden in Israel und in den USA. Die jüdische Bevölkerung wird immer größer Weltweit gibt es immer mehr Juden. Seit Ende des Zweiten Weltkrieges ist die Anzahl der Juden von elf Millionen auf 16,8 Millionen im Jahr 2023 angestiegen. Vor allem in den USA und in Israel wächst die jüdische Bevölkerung. In Israel wird generell seit Jahren ein positives Bevölkerungswachstum verzeichnet. Das liegt hauptsächlich an der hohen Fertilitätsrate. In Deutschland hingegen sinken die Mitgliederzahlen in den jüdischen Gemeinden. Holocaust und Antisemitismus Die Nationalsozialisten begingen während ihrer Herrschaftszeit von 1933 bis 1945 einen Völkermord an mehreren Millionen Menschen, darunter sechs Millionen Juden. Die durch staatlichen Antisemitismus vorangetriebene NS-Ideologie sah die Vernichtungen von allem "unwerten Leben" vor, ihr erklärtes Ziel war die vollkommene Auslöschung des jüdischen Volkes und anderer Minderheiten. Auch heute noch sind antisemitische Einstellungen und Vorurteile in Deutschland in Teilen der Gesellschaft vertreten. Angesichts des Terrorangriffs der Hamas auf Israel Anfang Oktober 2023 häufen sich antisemitische Vorfälle auch in Deutschland.