In 2025, Moscow was the largest city in Europe with an estimated urban agglomeration of 12.74 million people. The French capital, Paris, was the second largest city in 2025 at 11.35 million, followed by the capitals of the United Kingdom and Spain, with London at 9.84 million and Madrid at 6.81 million people. Istanbul, which would otherwise be the largest city in Europe in 2025, is excluded as it is only partially in Europe, with a sizeable part of its population living in Asia. Europe’s population is almost 750 million Since 1950, the population of Europe has increased by approximately 200 million people, increasing from 550 million to 750 million in these seventy years. Before the turn of the millennium, Europe was the second-most populated continent, before it was overtaken by Africa, which saw its population increase from 228 million in 1950 to 817 million by 2000. Asia has consistently had the largest population of the world’s continents and was estimated to have a population of 4.6 billion. Europe’s largest countries Including its territory in Asia, Russia is by far the largest country in the world, with a territory of around 17 million square kilometers, almost double that of the next largest country, Canada. Within Europe, Russia also has the continent's largest population at 145 million, followed by Germany at 83 million and the United Kingdom at almost 68 million. By contrast, Europe is also home to various micro-states such as San Marino, which has a population of just 30 thousand.

In 1500, the largest city was Paris, with an estimated 225 thousand inhabitants, almost double the population of the second-largest city, Naples. As in 1330, Venice and Milan remain the third and fourth largest cities in Western Europe, however Genoa's population almost halved from 1330 until 1500, as it was struck heavily by the bubonic plague in the mid-1300s. In lists prior to this, the largest cities were generally in Spain and Italy, however, as time progressed, the largest populations could be found more often in Italy and France. The year 1500 is around the beginning of what we now consider modern history, a time that saw the birth of many European empires and inter-continental globalization.

By 1800, London had grown to be the largest city in Western Europe with just under one million inhabitants. Paris was now the second largest city, with over half a million people, and Naples was the third largest city with 450 thousand people. The only other cities with over two hundred thousand inhabitants at this time were Vienna, Amsterdam and Dublin. Another noticeable development is the inclusion of many more northern cities from a wider variety of countries. The dominance of cities from France and Mediterranean countries was no longer the case, and the dispersal of European populations in 1800 was much closer to how it is today, more than two centuries later.

The largest Western European city in 1200 was Palermo, with 150 thousand inhabitants. This is a great decrease in the number 150 years previously, where the population was 350 thousand. The city of Cordova also decreased by almost 400 thousand in this time, possibly because of the declining Arabian control and influence in the area. Seville is the third largest city on this list, although it's overall population decreased by ten thousand since 1050. The largest cities are generally in Spain or Italy, although the second largest city on this list is Paris, with 110 thousand inhabitants. In the lists that follow, Paris remains at the top as either the largest (1500 and 1650) or second largest (1330 and 1800) city in Western Europe.

It is estimated that the cities of Cordova (modern-day Córdoba) and Palermo were the largest cities in Europe in 1050, and had between fifteen and twenty times the population of most other entries in this graph, Despite this the cities of Cordova (the capital city of the Umayyad caliphate, who controlled much of the Iberian peninsula from the seventh to eleventh centuries), and Palermo (another Arab-controlled capital in Southern Europe) were still the only cities in Western Europe with a population over one hundred thousand people, closely followed by Seville. It is also noteworthy to point out that the five largest cities on this list were importing trading cities, in modern day Spain or Italy, although the largest cities become more northern and western European in later lists (1200, 1330, 1500, 1650 and 1800). In 1050, todays largest Western European cities, London and Paris, had just twenty-five and twenty thousand inhabitants respectively.

The period of European history (and much of world history) between 500 and 1500 is today known as the 'Dark Ages'. Although the term 'Dark Ages' was originally applied to the lack of literature and arts, it has since been applied to the lack or scarcity of recorded information from this time. Because of these limitations, much information about this time is still being debated today.

This horizontal bar chart displays urban land area (km²) by capital city using the aggregation sum and is filtered where the continent is Europe. The data is about countries per year.

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It is estimated that the largest cities in Western Europe in 1330 were Paris and Granada. At this time, Paris was the seat of power in northern France, while Granada had become the largest multicultural city in southern Spain, controlled by the Muslim, Nasrid Kingdom during Spain's Reconquista period. The next three largest cities were Venice, Genoa and Milan, all in northern Italy, renowned as important trading cities during the middle ages. In October 1347, the first wave of the Black Death had arrived in Sicily and then began spreading throughout Europe, decimating the population.

Russia is the largest country in Europe, and also the largest in the world, its total size amounting to 17 million square kilometers (km2). It should be noted, however, that over three quarters of Russia is located in Asia, and the Ural mountains are often viewed as the meeting point of the two continents in Russia; nonetheless, European Russia is still significantly larger than any other European country. Ukraine, the second largest country on the continent, is only 603,000 km2, making it about 28 times smaller than its eastern neighbor, or seven times smaller than the European part of Russia. France is the third largest country in Europe, but the largest in the European Union. The Vatican City, often referred to as the Holy Sea, is both the smallest country in Europe and in the world, at just one km2. Population Russia is also the most populous country in Europe. It has around 144 million inhabitants across the country; in this case, around three quarters of the population live in the European part, which still gives it the largest population in Europe. Despite having the largest population, Russia is a very sparsely populated country due to its size and the harsh winters. Germany is the second most populous country in Europe, with 83 million inhabitants, while the Vatican has the smallest population. Worldwide, India and China are the most populous countries, with approximately 1.4 billion inhabitants each. Cities Moscow in Russia is ranked as the most populous city in Europe with around 13 million inhabitants, although figures vary, due to differences in the methodologies used by countries and sources. Some statistics include Istanbul in Turkey* as the largest city in Europe with its 15 million inhabitants, bit it has been excluded here as most of the country and parts of the city is located in Asia. Worldwide, Tokyo is the most populous city, with Jakarta the second largest and Delhi the third.

In 2024, Russia had the largest population among European countries at 144.8 million people. The next largest countries in terms of their population size were Turkey at 87.5 million, Germany at 84.5 million, the United Kingdom at 69.1 million, and France at 66.5 million. Europe is also home to some of the world’s smallest countries, such as the microstates of Liechtenstein and San Marino, with populations of 39,870 and 33,581 respectively. Europe’s largest economies Germany was Europe’s largest economy in 2023, with a Gross Domestic Product of around 4.2 trillion Euros, while the UK and France are the second and third largest economies, at 3.2 trillion and 2.8 trillion euros respectively. Prior to the mid-2000s, Europe’s fourth-largest economy, Italy, had an economy that was of a similar sized to France and the UK, before diverging growth patterns saw the UK and France become far larger economies than Italy. Moscow and Istanbul the megacities of Europe Two cities on the eastern borders of Europe were Europe’s largest in 2023. The Turkish city of Istanbul, with a population of 15.8 million, and the Russian capital, Moscow, with a population of 12.7 million. Istanbul is arguably the world’s most famous transcontinental city with territory in both Europe and Asia and has been an important center for commerce and culture for over two thousand years. Paris was the third largest European city with a population of 11 million, with London being the fourth largest at 9.6 million.

This statistic shows the largest urban settlements in the Netherlands in 2021. In 2021, around 1.13 million people lived in Amsterdam, making it the largest city in the Netherlands. Population of the Netherlands With the global financial crisis in 2008 as well as the Euro zone crisis, many countries in Europe suffered a great economic impact. In spite of the crisis, the Netherlands maintained a stable economy over the past decade. The country's unemployment rate, for example, has been kept at a relatively low level in comparison to other countries in Europe also affected by the economic crisis. In 2014, Spain had an unemployment rate of more than 25 percent. The Netherlands' population has also seen increases in growth in comparison to previous years, with the figures slowly decreasing since 2011. As a result of the increase in population, the degree of urbanization - which is the share of the population living in urban areas - has increased, while the size of the labor force in the Netherlands has been relatively stable over the past decade. The population density of inhabitants per square kilometer in the Netherlands has also increased. Large cities in the Netherlands have experienced the impact of the population density growth and increase in the size of the labor force first hand. Three cities in the Netherlands have over half a million residents (as can be seen above). Additionally, more and more visitors are coming to the kingdom: The number of tourists in the Netherlands has increased significantly since 2001, a change which has also impacted the country's metropolises. Due to its location and affordable accommodation prices, the country’s tourism industry is developing and the largest cities in the Netherlands are taking advantage of it.

Link to this report's codebookWe are pleased to launch the 2019 SDG Index and Dashboards Report for European Cities (prototype version). This is the first report comparing the performance of capital cities and a selection of large metropolitan areas in the European-Union (EU) and European Free Trade Association (EFTA) on the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). In total, results for 45 European cities are presented in this first prototype version. The report was prepared by a team of researchers from the Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN) and the Brabant Center for Sustainable Development (Telos, Tilburg University).It builds on SDSN’s experience in designing SDG indicators for nations and metropolitan areas. The report also builds on TELOS’ previous work on “Sustainability Monitoring of European Cities” (2014) prepared in collaboration with the European Commission’s Directorate-General for Environment (Zoeteman et al. 2014) which led to the development of an interactive platform on request of the Dutch Ministry of Interior and Kingdom Relations (Zoeteman et al. 2016)1.This report comes at a key opportunity for Europe to increase its focus on the SDGs, with the election of the new European Parliament in May, the new Presidency of the Council of the EU moving to Finland in July, and the arrival of a new European Commission by the end of the year. The European Union can and should strengthen its policy measures to achieve all of the SDGs. In that context, the European Commission’s January 2019 Reflection Paper “Towards a sustainable Europe by 2030” highlights various scenarios to support the SDGs over the next decade. The report by the European Commission highlights the opportunities to address the SDGs as part of the next EU Urban Agenda.Achieving the SDGs will require, at the local level, deep transformations in transportation, energy and urban planning and new approaches to address poverty and inequalities in access to key public services including health and education. The SDSN estimates that about two-thirds (65%) of the 169 SDG targets underlying the 17 SDGs can only be reached with the proper engagement of, and coordination with, local and regional governments (SDSN 2015).Similarly, UN-Habitat estimates that around one-third of all SDGs indicators have a local or urban component2. The Urban Agenda for the European Union launched in May 2016 (Pact of Amsterdam), recognizes the crucial role of cities in achieving the SDGs. Over two-thirds of EU citizens live in urban areas while about 85% of the EU’s GDP is generated in cities (European Commission 2019). The urban population in Europe is projected to rise to just over 80% by 2050 (European Commission 2016).This 2019 SDG Index and Dashboards for European Cities (prototype version) finds that no European capital city or large metropolitan area has of yet fully achieved the SDGs. Nordic European cities – Oslo, Stockholm, Helsinki and Copenhagen – are closest to the SDG targets but still face challenges in achieving one or several of the SDGs. Overall, the cities in Europe perform best on SDG 3 (Health and Well-Being), SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation), SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth) and SDG 9 (Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure). By contrast, performance is lowest on SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production), SDG 13 (Climate Action) and SDG 15 (Life on Land).As always, our analysis is constrained by the availability, quality and comparability of data. These data constraints are even greater at the subnational level. Despite the ground breaking work conducted by the European Commission – notably via Eurostat and the Joint Research Centre – to define territorial levels and metropolitan areas and to standardize subnational data and indicators, major gaps remain to monitor all of the SDGs. A table summarizing some of these major gaps is included in this report.The need to expand and strengthen SDG monitoring in regions and municipalities across Europe in the coming years was raised extensively in the consultation made by SDSN as part of its 2019 study on “Exposing EU policy gaps to address the Sustainable Development Goals” prepared in collaboration with the European Economic and Social Committee (Lafortune and Schmidt-Traub 2019) . This was also one of the recom- mendations made by ESAC during the consultation phase for the “2017 Sustainable development in the European Union — Monitoring report on progress towards the SDGs in an EU context” (European Statistical Advisory Committee (ESAC) 2017).We hope this first 2019 SDG Index and Dashboards Report for European Cities (prototype version) will help to identify the major SDG priorities in urban Europe. All data and analyses included in this report are available on SDSN’s and TELOS’ data portals (www.sdgindex.org and www.telos.nl). Individual city profiles are accessible online. We very much welcome comments and suggestions for filling gaps in the data used for this index and for improving the analysis and presentation of the results. Please contact us at info@sdgindex.org or telos@uvt.nl.Jeffrey Sachs,Director SDSNGeert Duijsters,Dean Tilburg School of economics, Tilburg University - Telos

The Europe flexible office market is valued at USD 16.19 Billion in 2023 and is anticipated to reach USD 36.44 Billion by 2031, growing at a CAGR of 10.72% from 2024 to 2031.

Europe Flexible Office Market Dynamics

The key market dynamics that are shaping the Europe flexible office market include:

Key Market Drivers

Rise of Remote Work: The shift towards remote and hybrid work models has increased the demand for flexible office spaces, allowing employees to choose when and where they work. According to government reports, around 60% of employees in major European cities prefer a hybrid working arrangement. Increase in Startups and SMEs: The growth of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and startups across Europe is a significant driver. As of 2023, there were approximately 25 million SMEs in the EU, contributing to the demand for flexible office solutions that accommodate varying space needs.

Multiple factors can play a role in the decision to invest in real estate. To calculate how prosperous European cities are on the estate market, the Urban Land Institute considered transport connectivity, forecasted real estate returns, a city’s economic performance, availability of assets/opportunities for new development, market size and liquidity, regulatory environment, digital connectivity, attractiveness to talent, city leadership, housing affordability, and affordability of space for new/small/growing businesses. Leading European cities for development and investment London, Madrid, and Paris were the three leading European cities by overall prospects for 2025. As the most important factors for selecting a European city for investment or development, industry experts outline forecast the city's economic performance. When it comes to the issues influencing real estate professionals in their investment choices, the major concerns shared were construction costs, capex requirements, and environmental sustainability requirements. Leading investment real estate sectors In terms of investment prospects, the sectors with the highest scores were new energy infrastructure, life sciences, and data centers. This should come as no surprise taking into consideration that the value of investments in industrial and logistic real estate in Europe has increased by more than threefold since 2012.

Rome is the most populous city in Italy. With 2.75 million inhabitants, the capital of the country put ahead Milan and Naples. Compared to the number of citizens in 2012, the resident population of Rome increased by over 140,000 individuals. Regional data Rome is located in the center of Italy in the Lazio region. Lazio is the second-largest region in terms of population size after Lombardy. In 2024, the region counts roughly 5.7 million inhabitants, whereas Lombardy has over ten million individuals. The third-largest region is Campania, with 5.6 million people. Naples, the major center of Campania, has around 910,000 inhabitants at the beginning of 2024. Nevertheless, this city was, back in the 19th century, one of the largest cities in Western Europe. Tourism in Rome The Eternal City is also the main tourist destination in Italy and was the eighth most-visited city in Europe. The largest groups of international visitors in Rome came from the United States of America, Japan, and the United Kingdom. Every year, more and more tourists also enjoy the best-known tourist attractions in Rome, like the Colosseum, the Roman Forum, and the Palatine Hill, which together recorded almost ten million visitors in 2022.

The global Big Data in Smart Cities market is experiencing robust growth, driven by the increasing adoption of smart city initiatives worldwide. The market's expansion is fueled by several key factors. Firstly, the proliferation of IoT devices generates massive volumes of data that require sophisticated analytics for effective city management. Secondly, governments and municipalities are increasingly investing in digital infrastructure to improve citizen services, enhance public safety, and optimize resource allocation. Thirdly, advancements in big data technologies, such as cloud computing, AI, and machine learning, enable more insightful analysis of urban data, leading to better decision-making and improved urban planning. The market is segmented by deployment (On-Cloud, On-Premise, Hybrid) and application (Smart Governance, Smart Energy, Smart Building, Smart Mobility, Smart Infrastructure, Others), each presenting unique growth opportunities. While data security concerns and the high initial investment costs pose challenges, the long-term benefits of improved efficiency, reduced operational costs, and enhanced citizen engagement are driving market adoption. Leading players like Cisco, IBM, and Schneider Electric are actively contributing to market growth through innovative solutions and strategic partnerships. Geographically, North America and Europe currently hold significant market share, but the Asia-Pacific region is poised for rapid expansion due to substantial government investments in smart city projects and increasing urbanization. We project a consistent CAGR, considering the factors mentioned above and the existing market size. While precise figures aren't provided, a reasonable estimate based on similar technology markets would indicate a substantial and continuous growth trajectory over the forecast period. The competitive landscape is characterized by both established technology giants and specialized smart city solution providers. Strategic alliances and mergers & acquisitions are likely to intensify as companies strive to expand their market presence and offer comprehensive solutions. Future growth will be shaped by factors such as the maturation of 5G networks, the integration of edge computing, and the increasing focus on data privacy and security regulations. The market is anticipated to witness a continued shift towards cloud-based solutions due to scalability, cost-effectiveness, and enhanced accessibility. The evolution of data analytics techniques and the adoption of advanced AI/ML algorithms will further enhance the market's potential, leading to more predictive and proactive city management capabilities.

Costs of coastal flooding and protection are essential information for risk assessment and natural hazards research, but there are few systematic attempts to quantify cost curves beyond the case study level. Here, we present a set of systematically derived damage and protection cost curves for the 600 largest (by area) European coastal cities. The city clusters were identified by an automated cluster algorithm from CORINE land cover 2012 data, following the Urban Morphological Zone (UMZ) definition. The data provides detailed cost curves for direct flood damages at flood heights between 0 and 12 m on a 0.5 m increment. Costs estimates are based on depth damage functions for different land use obtained from the European Joint Research Center. The necessary mapping between land use and land cover is based on Land Use/Cover Area frame Survey (LUCAS) 2015 primary data. The underlying inundation maps were derived from the European Digital Elevation Model (EU-DEM). Furthermore, the data contain curves for the cost of protection at the same heights and increments as the damage curves, assuming no previously installed protection. These curves are available both for a low and high cost scenario and are based on hypothetical protection courses derived from cluster data and inundation maps. All cost estimates are given in Euro and were inflation-adjusted to 2016 price levels. For spatial reference, we include the individual raster tiles depicting the extent of each city cluster. The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme under Grant Agreement No. 308497 (Project RAMSES).

Big Data in Smart Cities Market Outlook

The global market size for Big Data in Smart Cities is projected to grow from USD 30 billion in 2023 to USD 90 billion by 2032, at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 14%. This growth is driven by the increasing urbanization and the need for efficient city management solutions. Smart cities leverage big data to optimize resources, enhance public services, and improve the overall quality of urban life, making it a critical investment for governments worldwide.

One of the primary growth factors for the Big Data in Smart Cities market is the rapid urbanization occurring globally. As more people migrate to cities, the pressure on urban infrastructure and services intensifies. This necessitates the adoption of advanced technologies to manage resources efficiently and sustainably. Governments and city planners are increasingly turning to big data analytics to monitor and manage urban resources such as water, electricity, and transportation more effectively. This technological integration not only improves the functionality of city services but also enhances the quality of life for residents.

Another significant growth driver is the increasing investment from both public and private sectors in smart city initiatives. Governments are allocating substantial budgets to develop smart city projects aimed at creating more livable, sustainable, and resilient urban environments. Private companies are also investing heavily in smart city technologies, including big data analytics, to capitalize on emerging opportunities. These investments are spurred by the potential for significant returns, as efficient city management can lead to cost savings and revenue generation. The collaboration between public and private entities is fostering innovation and accelerating the deployment of big data solutions in urban settings.

The growing adoption of the Internet of Things (IoT) is also propelling the Big Data in Smart Cities market. IoT devices generate vast amounts of data that can be analyzed to gain insights into various aspects of urban life, from traffic patterns to energy consumption. The integration of IoT with big data analytics allows for real-time monitoring and decision-making, which is crucial for the dynamic and complex environments of smart cities. As IoT technology becomes more widespread and affordable, its role in smart city solutions is expected to expand, further driving the market growth for big data analytics.

Smart City Platforms play a pivotal role in the integration and management of various technologies within urban environments. These platforms serve as the backbone for data collection, analysis, and dissemination, enabling cities to leverage big data effectively. By providing a centralized framework, Smart City Platforms facilitate the seamless interaction between IoT devices, data analytics tools, and city management systems. This integration is crucial for achieving the goals of smart city initiatives, such as enhancing public services, optimizing resource use, and improving the quality of life for residents. As cities continue to evolve and embrace digital transformation, the importance of robust and scalable Smart City Platforms cannot be overstated.

Regionally, North America is expected to hold a significant share of the Big Data in Smart Cities market due to early adoption and substantial investments in smart city projects. Europe follows closely, with numerous initiatives aimed at sustainable urban development. The Asia Pacific region is anticipated to witness the highest growth rate, driven by rapid urbanization, government initiatives, and increasing technological advancements. Latin America and the Middle East & Africa are also expected to contribute to market growth, albeit at a slower pace, as smart city projects in these regions are still in the nascent stages.

Component Analysis

The Big Data in Smart Cities market is segmented into Software, Hardware, and Services based on components. The software segment includes analytics platforms, data management software, and various applications designed to manage and analyze urban data. This segment is expected to witness significant growth due to the increasing demand for advanced analytics to derive actionable insights from vast amounts of data generated in smart cities. The need for real-time data processing and predictive analytics is driving the adoption of sophisticated software solutions, which are crucial for effective city management.&

The global urban design market is experiencing robust growth, driven by rapid urbanization, increasing infrastructure development, and a rising focus on sustainable and resilient city planning. The market size in 2025 is estimated at $150 billion, exhibiting a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 7% from 2025 to 2033. This expansion is fueled by several key factors. Firstly, the ongoing migration from rural to urban areas in developing economies significantly increases the demand for efficient and aesthetically pleasing urban spaces. Secondly, advancements in technology, such as Building Information Modeling (BIM) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS), are optimizing design processes and enhancing project outcomes. Furthermore, the global emphasis on sustainable development, including green building initiatives and smart city projects, is shaping the urban design landscape, driving innovation and demand for eco-friendly solutions. Finally, the increasing involvement of private sector investors in urban development initiatives contributes to the market's expansion. Various segments, including zoning, transport, and infrastructure design, coupled with application in both big and small cities, further diversify the market. Leading firms like Gensler, Gold Mantis, Jacobs, Stantec, and others are at the forefront of this growth, continuously adapting to evolving demands and technological advancements. However, market restraints include regulatory hurdles, funding limitations for large-scale projects in certain regions, and the occasional mismatch between design aspirations and budget constraints. Nevertheless, the long-term outlook remains optimistic, with projections indicating a continuously expanding market fueled by the ongoing global urbanization trend and the need for improved urban infrastructure and sustainable city planning. The market segmentation by city size and application area allows for targeted market penetration and strategic growth for companies operating in this dynamic sector.