From the mid-19th century until today, life expectancy at birth in the United States has roughly doubled, from 39.4 years in 1850 to 79.6 years in 2025. It is estimated that life expectancy in the U.S. began its upward trajectory in the 1880s, largely driven by the decline in infant and child mortality through factors such as vaccination programs, antibiotics, and other healthcare advancements. Improved food security and access to clean water, as well as general increases in living standards (such as better housing, education, and increased safety) also contributed to a rise in life expectancy across all age brackets. There were notable dips in life expectancy; with an eight year drop during the American Civil War in the 1860s, a seven year drop during the Spanish Flu empidemic in 1918, and a 2.5 year drop during the Covid-19 pandemic. There were also notable plateaus (and minor decreases) not due to major historical events, such as that of the 2010s, which has been attributed to a combination of factors such as unhealthy lifestyles, poor access to healthcare, poverty, and increased suicide rates, among others. However, despite the rate of progress slowing since the 1950s, most decades do see a general increase in the long term, and current UN projections predict that life expectancy at birth in the U.S. will increase by another nine years before the end of the century.

Life expectancy in the United Kingdom was below 39 years in the year 1765, and over the course of the next two and a half centuries, it is expected to have increased by more than double, to 81.1 by the year 2020. Although life expectancy has generally increased throughout the UK's history, there were several times where the rate deviated from its previous trajectory. These changes were the result of smallpox epidemics in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, new sanitary and medical advancements throughout time (such as compulsory vaccination), and the First world War and Spanish Flu epidemic in the 1910s.

Life expectancy in Germany was below 39 in the year 1875, and over the course of the next 145 years, it is expected to have increased to above 81 years in the year 2020. Although life expectancy has generally increased throughout Germany's history, there were several times where the rate deviated from its previous trajectory. The most notable changes were because of the First and Second World Wars, in the first half of the twentieth century.

Life expectancy in Poland was 35.9 in the year 1885, and over the course of the next 135 years, it is expected to have increased to 78.5 by the year 2020. Although life expectancy has generally increased throughout Poland's history, the most noticeable decline came in the 1940s as a result of the Second World War and Holocaust, which caused Poland's population to decline by about 17 percent, which was more than any other country.

*Numbers in brackets are percentages male/female.

Life expectancy in Austria was below 35 in the year 1870, and over the course of the next 150 years, it is expected to have increased to over 81 years by 2020. Although life expectancy has generally increased throughout Austria's history, there were several times where the rate deviated from its previous trajectory. Most noticeably, these were caused by both World Wars, and the Spanish Flu epidemic during and after WWI.

Long time series of Vienna’s population history from 1700 to 1999. With this study the author A. Weigl submits the first detailed report on the population history of Vienna over the period from the late mediaevial time until the 20th century. The author documents by means of the development of migration, reproduction and mortality the process of Vienna’s population history. Important influencing factors as for excample food pattern, plagues and epidemics, medical advance, the change of mentalities and influences by demographic policies are discussed in detail. The significant role of modenization-processes is in the focus of the publication. By means of numerous long time series data the pecesses are documented empirically. Content of the Study: - Demographic Change and Modernization - Main Features of Vienna’s Population Development - Migration: The Impetus for an Increasing Town - Mortality: From Town Refurbishment to Municipal Welfare Policy - Fertility: The Genesis of the Modern Family - The Common Modernizationcontext of Transition List of Data-Tables in the GESIS-ZA-Online-Database HISTAT: A. Population Development of Vienna A.01 Population (1200-1999) A.02 Population Development by Territory as of Today (1590-1999) A.03 Regional Population Development (1700-1991) A.04 Population Movement (1869-1991) A.05 Agestructure (1856-1991) A.06 Population Development of the City, the suburbs and the periphery (1777-1857) A.07 Population by Urban Districts by Territory as of Today (1777-1991) A.08 Population by Urban Districts (1869-1939) A.09 Native Birth of the Population (1856-1934) A.10 Natural Population Movement (1707-1999) A.11 Proportion of Persons Younger than 14 Years by Urban Districts (1869-1939) A.12 Proportion of Persons in the Age of 60 and older by Urban Districts (1869-1939) A.13 Population and Birth Rates by Religious Denomination (1856-1939) B. Migration B.01 Ratios of Mobility-Transition (1710-1991) B.02 Acceptation of new Members into the Homeland Association (Naturalizations) (1919-1938) C. Mortality C.01 Age specific Mortality-Rates of Vienna (1856-1939) C.02 Age standardized Morality-Rates by Sex and by Causes of Death (1910-1935) C.03 Cholera-Mortality by Urnab Districts (1831-1873) C.04 Variola-Mortality (1728-1938) C.05 Average Life Expectancy (1830-1998) C.06a Age-Specific Mortality: Mortality Rates (1650-1999) C.06b Age-Specific Mortality: Agestructure of the Deceased (1650-1999) C.07a Infant Mortality (1728-1999) C.07b Infant Mortality Rate by Territory as of Today (1871-1938) C.08 Mortality Rates by Urban Districts (1871-1938) C.09 Infant Mortality by Urban Districts (1885-1911) C.10 Pulmonary Tuberculosis-Mortality by Urban Districts (1871-1938) D. Fertiliy D.01 General Fertility-Rate of Vienna (1856-1939) D.02 Fertility-Rate (1754-1999) D.03 Fertility-Indizes by Metropolitan Comparison (1910-1960) D.04 Illegitimacy-Rates (1797-1999) D.05 Marriage Rate, Birthrate and Deathrate (1706-1938) D.06 Marriage-, Mortality- and Infant Mortality Rate by Territory as of Today (1871-1938) D.07 Birth Rate by Urban Districts (1783-1938) E. Housholds E.01 Average Householdsize (1780-1991)

Life expectancy in Australia was just below 35 in the year 1870, and over the course of the next 150 years, it is expected to have increased to 83.2 by the year 2020. Although life expectancy has generally increased throughout Australia's history, there were several times where the rate deviated from its previous trajectory. the most noticeable changes were between 1890 and 1920. This period included Australia's Independence movement, the implementation of the 'White Australia' policy, the First World War and Spanish Flu epidemic, all of which impacted the demographics of Australia.

PERIOD: 1935-1936. SOURCE: [Statistics and reports of major countries].

At the beginning of the 1840s, life expectancy from birth in Ireland was just over 38 years. However, this figure would see a dramatic decline with the beginning of the Great Famine in 1845, and dropped below 21 years in the second half of the decade (in 1849 alone, life expectancy fell to just 14 years). The famine came as a result of a Europe-wide potato blight, which had a disproportionally devastating impact on the Irish population due to the dependency on potatoes (particularly in the south and east), and the prevalence of a single variety of potato on the island that allowed the blight to spread faster than in other areas of Europe. Additionally, authorities forcefully redirected much of the country's surplus grain to the British mainland, which exacerbated the situation. Within five years, mass starvation would contribute to the deaths of over one million people on the island, while a further one million would emigrate; this also created a legacy of emigration from Ireland, which saw the population continue to fall until the mid-1900s, and the total population of the island is still well below its pre-famine level of 8.5 million people.

Following the end of the Great Famine, life expectancy would begin to gradually increase in Ireland, as post-famine reforms would see improvements in the living standards of the country’s peasantry, most notably the Land Wars, a largely successful series of strikes, boycotts and protests aimed at reform of the country's agricultural land distribution, which began in the 1870s and lasted into the 20th century. As these reforms were implemented, life expectancy in Ireland would rise to more than fifty years by the turn of the century. While this rise would slow somewhat in the 1910s, due to the large number of Irish soldiers who fought in the First World War and the Spanish Flu pandemic, as well as the period of civil unrest leading up to the island's partition in 1921, life expectancy in Ireland would rise greatly in the 20th century. In the second half of the 20th century, Ireland's healthcare system and living standards developed similarly to the rest of Western Europe, and today, it is often ranks among the top countries globally in terms of human development, GDP and quality of healthcare. With these developments, the increase in life expectancy from birth in Ireland was relatively constant in the first century of independence, and in 2020 is estimated to be 82 years.

Life expectancy in China was just 32 in the year 1850, and over the course of the next 170 years, it is expected to more than double to 76.6 years in 2020. Between 1850 and 1950, finding reliable data proved difficult for anthropologists, however some events, such as the Taiping Rebellion and Dungan Revolt in the nineteenth century did reduce life expectancy by a few years, and also the Chinese Civil War and Second World War in the first half of the twentieth century. In the second half of the 1900s, Chinese life expectancy increased greatly, as the country became more industrialized and the standard of living increased.

Life expectancy in Canada was just below forty in the year 1800, and over the course of the next 220 years, it is expected to have increased by more than double to 82.2 by the year 2020. Throughout this time, life expectancy in Canada progressed at a steady rate, with the most noticeable changes coming during the interwar period, where the rate of increase was affected by the Spanish Flu epidemic and both World Wars.

Life expectancy (from birth) in Mexico was below thirty until the 1920s, and over the course of the next hundred years, it is expected to have increased to roughly 75 in the year 2020. Although life expectancy has generally increased throughout Mexico's history, there were several times where the rate deviated from its previous trajectory. The main change coincided with the Mexican Revolution in the 1910s, and again in the early 2000s. Life expectancy has plateaued around 75 in the last fifteen years, and is now decreasing, because of unhealthy lifestyles, violent crime and an increase in the number of people with chronic illnesses (such as diabetes).

Life expectancy in Russia was 29.6 in the year 1845, and over the course of the next 175 years, it is expected to have increased to 72.3 years by 2020. Generally speaking, Russian life expectancy has increased over this 175 year period, however events such as the World Wars, Russian Revolution and a series of famines caused fluctuations before the mid-twentieth century, where the rate fluctuated sporadically. Between 1945 and 1950, Russian life expectancy more than doubled in this five year period, and it then proceeded to increase until the 1970s, when it then began to fall again. Between 1970 and 2005, the number fell from 68.5 to 65, before it then grew again in more recent years.

Life expectancy in France was below thirty in the late 1700s, but over the course of the next two and a half centuries it is expected to reach 82.5 by the year 2020. Although life expectancy has generally increased throughout France's history, there were several times where the rate deviated from its previous trajectory. The most noticeable changes were because of smallpox and influenza epidemics in the 1700s, medical advancements (such as vaccination and pasteurization) saw life expectancy increase in the 1800s, and then both World Wars and the epidemics that followed caused brief drops in the first half of the twentieth century.

Life expectancy in Norway was 35 years in 1765, and over the course of the next 255 years, it is expected to have increased to 82.2 years by 2020. Although life expectancy has generally increased throughout history, there were several times where the rate deviated from its previous trajectory. These changes were a result of famine and influenza epidemics between 1765 and 1865, and again in the 1910s because of the Spanish Flu epidemic that spread across Europe.

Bulgaria's life expectancy from birth was just 36 years at the beginning of the nineteenth century, and it increased to 40 years by the beginning of the twentieth century (the consistency of this increase suggests that the figures are based on the average for the 1800s). Life expectancy then increased to 43.8 years by 1915, before the First World War and Spanish Flu Pandemic caused it to fall by almost two years. Apart from a small decrease in the 1940s, due to the Second World War, Bulgaria's life expectancy then grew to 70 years in the 1960s, where it plateaued around 71 until the 2000s. In the past two decades, life expectancy has increased again by almost four years, reaching almost 75 years in 2020.

Life expectancy in New Zealand was just over 34 in the year 1870, and over the course of the next 150 years, it is expected to have increased to just over 82 by the year 2020. Although life expectancy has generally increased along a gradual curve throughout New Zealand's history, there was a slight dip in the late 1910s, as a result of the First World War and following influenza epidemic. Apart from this, there were no anomalies that reduced life expectancy throughout this 150 year period.

The median age of Germans in 2025 was 45.5 years, meaning that half the German population was younger, half older. Following some fluctuation during the post-WWII baby boom waves, Germany's average age has been on an upwards trajectory since the 1970s, with a sharp rise in the 1990s and 2000s, although it has slowed in recent years. It is projected to peak at over 48 years in the 2040s, before plateauing around the 47 year mark for the remainder of the century. Aging in Germany This shift in the age makeup of Germany is driven by having fewer young people and more old people. While it has increased slightly in the last decade, the German fertility rate remains low. Fewer young people lead to a higher median age, as does rising life expectancy. These trends have significant economic and societal impacts, where workforces shrink and the elderly population places greater demand on healthcare systems and public finances, while families must increasingly care for elderly relatives. Regional and global trends The entire European Union, due to higher levels of development, shows an upward shift in its age distribution. While this shift is occurring globally, the level of Germany’s median age is particularly high. In many other parts of the world, particularly Subsaharan Africa, the proportion of young and old inhabitants is skewed sharply toward the young, pulling the median age lower.

The state of Belgium owes its name to Julius Caesar, who used the name "Belgium" to refer to the region in his narrative "The Gallic Wars". After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the region emerged as a cosmopolitan trading center, and was a collection of smaller duchies and states (such as Flanders and Brabant), before modern history saw control of the region pass between France, the Netherlands and (to a lesser extent) Spain. Modern day Belgium emerged in 1830 following the Belgian Revolution when it gained independence from the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Throughout this time, the Belgian region was the setting of many conflicts between other European powers, which greatly affected the population development and demography of the area. From 1800 until the First world War, the population of Belgium grew steadily, and more than doubled in the nineteenth century. The World Wars Population growth stagnated in the 1910s, as a result of World War I and the Spanish Flu epidemic. Belgium was one of the focal points of military action in the war, and many military personnel from other nations also lost their lives here during the conflict. Much of the Second World War also took place in Belgium, and although it remained neutral at the outbreak of both wars, it was invaded twice by Germany due to its strategic importance. Belgium suffered an estimated 88,000 fatalities during the war; with many further military fatalities from other nations also perishing in the region. Continuous growth From 1950 onwards, Belgium's population grows at a relatively consistent rate, to more than ten million people the year 2000. Since the turn of the millennium, a positive net migration rate and higher life expectancy has meant that Belgium's population has grown even faster rate than in the twentieth century. Today, Belgium has a very high standard of living, and the capital city of Brussels is home to the headquarters of many international institutions, particularly the European Union.