As of July 2024, 70.4 percent of the Malaysian population were classified as Bumiputera, 22.4 percent were classified as ethnic Chinese, and 6.5 percent as ethnic Indians. Those who do not fall under these three main ethnic groups are classified as ‘Other’. Malaysia is a multi-ethnic and multi-religious society with three main ethnicities and language groups. Who are Malaysia’s Bumiputera? Bumiputera, meaning sons of the soil, is a term used to categorize the Malays, as well as the indigenous peoples of Peninsular Malaysia, also known as orang asli, and the indigenous peoples of Sabah and Sarawak. As of July 2023, the Bumiputera share of the population in Sabah was 89 percent, while that in Sarawak was 76.1 percent. Thus, the incorporation of the states of Sabah and Sarawak during the formation of Malaysia ensured that the ethnic Malays were able to maintain a majority share of the Malaysian population. Bumiputera privileges and ethnic-based politics The rights and privileges of the Malays and the natives of Sabah and Sarawak are enshrined in Article 153 of Malaysia’s constitution. This translated, in practice, to a policy of affirmative action to improve the economic situation of this particular group, through the New Economic Policy introduced in 1971. 50 years on, it is questionable whether the policy has achieved its aim. Bumiputeras still lag behind the other ethnic two major groups in terms of monthly household income. However, re-thinking this policy will certainly be met by opposition from those who have benefitted from it.

In 2022, ethnic Chinese households had the highest mean monthly household income in Malaysia, at around 10.66 thousand Malaysian ringgit. This was more than three thousand ringgit higher than Bumiputera households. Despite the implementation of affirmative action through Article 153 of the Malaysian constitution, the economic position of the Bumiputera vis-à-vis other ethnicities still left much room for improvement.

Historical policies, ethnicity, and the urban-rural divide The Bumiputera make up the majority of the Malaysian population, yet have one of the lowest average monthly household incomes in Malaysia. This economic disparity could be explained by the effects of colonial policies that kept the Bumiputera largely in the countryside. This resulted in an urban-rural divide that was characterized by ethnicity, with the immigrant Chinese and Indian laborers concentrated in the urban centers, a demographic pattern that is still evident today.

There was a considerable difference in urban and rural household incomes in Malaysia, with urban household income being around 3.6 thousand ringgit more than rural households. This was largely due to the fact that wages in urban areas had to keep up with the higher cost of living there. This thus impacted the average monthly incomes of the largely rural-based Bumiputera and the largely urban-based ethnic Chinese. This visible wealth inequality has led to racial tensions in Malaysia, and it is still one of the problem in the country amidst a new government led by Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim, who was elected in 2022.

As of June 2024, there were around 3.09 million ethnic Chinese residents in Singapore. Singapore is a multi-ethnic society, with residents categorized into four main racial groups: Chinese, Malay, Indian, and Others. Each resident is assigned a racial category that follows the paternal side. This categorization would have an impact on both official as well as private matters. Modelling a peaceful, multi-ethnic society The racial categorization used in Singapore stemmed from its colonial past and continues to shape its social policies, from public housing quotas along the ethnic composition in the country to education policies pertaining second language, or ‘mother tongue’, instruction. Despite the emphasis on ethnicity and race, Singapore has managed to maintain a peaceful co-existence among its diverse population. Most Singaporeans across ethnic levels view the level of racial and religious harmony there to be moderately high. The level of acceptance and comfort with having people of other ethnicities in their social lives was also relatively high across the different ethnic groups. Are Singaporeans ready to move away from the CMIO model of ethnic classification? In recent times, however, there has been more open discussion on racism and the relevance of the CMIO (Chinese, Malay, Indian, Others) ethnic model for Singaporean society. The global discourse on racism has brought to attention the latent discrimination felt by the minority ethnic groups in Singapore, such as in the workplace. In 2010, Singapore introduced the option of having a ‘double-barreled’ race classification, reflecting the increasingly diverse and complicated ethnic background of its population. More than a decade later, there have been calls to do away from such racial classifications altogether. However, with social identity and policy deeply entrenched along these lines, it would be a challenge to move beyond race in Singapore.

Abstract

IPUMS-International is an effort to inventory, preserve, harmonize, and disseminate census microdata from around the world. The project has collected the world's largest archive of publicly available census samples. The data are coded and documented consistently across countries and over time to facillitate comparative research. IPUMS-International makes these data available to qualified researchers free of charge through a web dissemination system.

The IPUMS project is a collaboration of the Minnesota Population Center, National Statistical Offices, and international data archives. Major funding is provided by the U.S. National Science Foundation and the Demographic and Behavioral Sciences Branch of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Additional support is provided by the University of Minnesota Office of the Vice President for Research, the Minnesota Population Center, and Sun Microsystems.

Geographic coverage

National coverage

Analysis unit

Living quarters

UNITS IDENTIFIED: - Dwellings: No - Vacant units: No - Households: Yes - Group quarters: Yes - Special populations: No

UNIT DESCRIPTIONS: - Group quarters: Living quarters which is built or converted for living (e.g. house, flat, apartment, shophouse, makeshift hut, hotel, hostels, etc.).

Kind of data

Census/enumeration data [cen]

Sampling procedure

MICRODATA SOURCE: Department of Statistics, Malaysia

SAMPLE FRACTION: 1.67%

SAMPLE SIZE (person records): 182,601

Mode of data collection

Face-to-face [f2f]

Research instrument

Five types of schedules were used for the 1980 Population and Housing Census: Form 1 consisted of a House Listing Book; Form 2 was the schedule used in the Housing Census; Form 3 was used to collect information on households and; Form 4 was used for collecting individual particulars. However, persons in large hotels, hostels, hospitals, prisons and other institutions were enumerated on Form 33, a shortened version of Form 4.

As of July 2024, the population of Selangor was estimated at approximately 7.4 million. Selangor is Malaysia's most populous state, as well as the state with the largest economy in terms of gross domestic product. The Golden Peninsula Malaysia is comprised of 13 states and three Wilayah Persekutuan (WP) or federal territories, which include Labuan, an offshore financial center on the east; the nation’s capital, Kuala Lumpur; and the administrative center, Putrajaya - both on the west. The aforementioned two federal territories on the west are enclaves within Selangor. In addition to that and the many points of interest it has to offer, Selangor is Malaysia’s most visited state among domestic tourists. Darul Ehsan – The Abode of Sincerity Selangor is a sultanate, ruled by Sultan Sharafuddin Idris Shah since 2001. Located on the west coast of the Malaysian peninsula, the state hosts the country’s two main transportation hubs: Kuala Lumpur International Airport and Port Klang, the country’s largest port.The state is also Malaysia’s largest economy, which contributes a big part to Malaysia’s overall GDP per capita. With the prime location, good infrastructure, and two federal territories within, Selangor will continue to attract more people for work, travel, or more.

In 2022, with more than 303,000 people, the ethnic Malay was the largest group of public assistance recipients from the Department of Social Welfare in Malaysia. The second-largest group was the Chinese Malaysian with more than 82,000 recipients of financial assistance in the same year.

Abstract

The third wave of the Asian Barometer survey (ABS) conducted in 2010 and the database contains nine countries and regions in East Asia - the Philippines, Taiwan, Thailand, Mongolia, Singapore, Vietnam, Indonesia, Malaysia and South Korea. The ABS is an applied research program on public opinion on political values, democracy, and governance around the region. The regional network encompasses research teams from 13 East Asian political systems and 5 South Asian countries. Together, this regional survey network covers virtually all major political systems in the region, systems that have experienced different trajectories of regime evolution and are currently at different stages of political transition.

The mission and task of each national research team are to administer survey instruments to compile the required micro-level data under a common research framework and research methodology to ensure that the data is reliable and comparable on the issues of citizens' attitudes and values toward politics, power, reform, and democracy in Asia.

The Asian Barometer Survey is headquartered in Taipei and co-hosted by the Institute of Political Science, Academia Sinica and The Institute for the Advanced Studies of Humanities and Social Sciences, National Taiwan University.

Geographic coverage

13 East Asian political systems: Japan, Mongolia, South Koreas, Taiwan, Hong Kong, China, the Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Singapore, Indonesia, and Malaysia; 5 South Asian countries: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Nepal

Analysis unit

-Individuals

Kind of data

Sample survey data [ssd]

Sampling procedure

Compared with surveys carried out within a single nation, cross-nation survey involves an extra layer of difficulty and complexity in terms of survey management, research design, and database modeling for the purpose of data preservation and easy analysis. To facilitate the progress of the Asian Barometer Surveys, the survey methodology and database subproject is formed as an important protocol specifically aiming at overseeing and coordinating survey research designs, database modeling, and data release.

As a network of Global Barometer Surveys, Asian Barometer Survey requires all country teams to comply with the research protocols which Global Barometer network has developed, tested, and proved practical methods for conducting comparative survey research on public attitudes.

Research Protocols:

• National probability samples that give every citizen in each country an equal chance of being selected for interview. Whether using census household lists or a multistage area approach, the method for selecting sampling units is always randomized. The samples may be stratified, or weights applied, to ensure coverage of rural areas and minority populations in their correct proportions. As such, Asian Barometer samples represent the adult, voting-age population in each country surveyed.

A model Asian Barometer Survey has a sample size of 1,200 respondents, which allows a minimum confidence interval of plus or minus 3 percent at 95 percent probability.

Mode of data collection

Face-to-face [f2f]

Research instrument

A standard questionnaire instrument containing a core module of identical or functionally equivalent questions. Wherever possible, theoretical concepts are measured with multiple items in order to enable testing for construct validity. The wording of items is determined by balancing various criteria, including: the research themes emphasized in the survey, the comprehensibility of the item to lay respondents, and the proven effectiveness of the item when tested in previous surveys.

Survey Topics: 1.Economic Evaluations: What is the economic condition of the nation and your family: now, over the last five years, and in the next five years? 2.Trust in institutions: How trustworthy are public institutions, including government branches, the media, the military, and NGOs. 3.Social Capital: Membership in private and public groups, the frequency and degree of group participation, trust in others, and influence of guanxi. 4.Political Participatio: Voting in elections, national and local, country-specific voting patterns, and active participation in the political process as well as demonstrations and strikes. Contact with government and elected officials, political organizations, NGOs and media. 5.Electoral Mobilization: Personal connections with officials, candidates, and political parties; influence on voter choice. 6.Psychological Involvement and Partisanship: Interest in political news coverage, impact of government policies on daily life, and party allegiance. 7.Traditionalism: Importance of consensus and family, role of the elderly, face, and woman in theworkplace. 8.Democratic Legitimacy and Preference for Democracy: Democratic ranking of present and previous regime, and expected ranking in the next five years; satisfaction with how democracy works, suitability of democracy; comparisons between current and previous regimes, especially corruption; democracy and economic development, political competition, national unity, social problems, military government, and technocracy. 9.Efficacy, Citizen Empowerment, System Responsiveness: Accessibility of political system: does a political elite prevent access and reduce the ability of people to influence the government. 10.Democratic vs. Authoritarian Values: Level of education and political equality, government leadership and superiority, separation of executive and judiciary. 11.Cleavage: Ownership of state-owned enterprises, national authority over local decisions, cultural insulation, community and the individual. 12.Belief in Procedural Norms of Democracy: Respect of procedures by political leaders: compromise, tolerance of opposing and minority views. 13.Social-Economic Background Variables: Gender, age, marital status, education level, years of formal education, religion and religiosity, household, income, language and ethnicity. 14.Interview Record: Gender, age, class, and language of the interviewer, people present at the interview; did the respondent: refuse, display impatience, and cooperate; the language or dialect spoken in interview, and was an interpreter present.

Cleaning operations

Quality checks are enforced at every stage of data conversion to ensure that information from paper returns is edited, coded, and entered correctly for purposes of computer analysis. Machine readable data are generated by trained data entry operators and a minimum of 20 percent of the data is entered twice by independent teams for purposes of cross-checking. Data cleaning involves checks for illegal and logically inconsistent values.

In 2023, the share of the Malaysian population aged over 65 years was at 7.4 percent, an increase compared to 7.2 percent in the previous year. Malaysia is currently facing the prospect of an aging population, and the latest statistical data predicted this to be happening as soon as in 2030. Aging population by 2030? An aging population is defined as one in which those aged 65 years and above make up at least 15 percent of the total population. According to a statement by Malaysia’s Chief Statistician in July 2019, the 15 percent threshold would be crossed in 2030. The past ten years have seen a change in Malaysia’s age structure. The share of the population between 0 and 14 years had been decreasing steadily, while the inverse was true for those aged 65 and above. The average age of the Malaysian population reflected this trend, and was expected to reach 34.1 years in 2030, up from 28.2 years in 2015. Is Malaysia ready for an aging society? Academics fear that Malaysian society would not be ready to meet the needs of a rapidly aging society. In a survey on aging, more than 70 percent of Malaysian respondents felt that it was the duty of the young to take care of the elderly. This mindset places the burden of care on a shrinking base of young people. Not only that, it could contribute to the underdevelopment of social services for the elderly. Already, more Malaysians seemed pessimistic about aging. Existing problems such as a lack of professional caregivers, affordable care, and elderly-friendly housing, especially in rural areas, need to be quickly addressed before the silver tsunami overwhelms the country.

As of June 2023, the Gen Z or those between the ages of 19 to 25 years old, made up the majority of TikTok user base in Malaysia, with 35.61 percent. This was followed by the Millennials between the ages of 26 to 32 years, comprising around 29 percent of TikTok users.

Among countries with the highest number of overseas Chinese on each continent, the largest Chinese diaspora community is living in Indonesia, numbering more than ten million people. Most of these people are descendants from migrants born in China, who have moved to Indonesia a long time ago. On the contrary, a large part of overseas Chinese living in Canada and Australia have arrived in these countries only during the last two decades. China as an emigration country Many Chinese people have emigrated from their home country in search of better living conditions and educational chances. The increasing number of Chinese emigrants has benefited from loosened migration policies. On the one hand, the attitude of the Chinese government towards emigration has changed significantly. Overseas Chinese are considered to be strong supporters for the overall strength of Chinese culture and international influence. On the other hand, migration policies in the United States and Canada are changing with time, expanding migration opportunities for non-European immigrants. As a result, China has become one of the world’s largest emigration countries as well as the country with the highest outflows of high net worth individuals. However, the mass emigration is causing a severe loss of homegrown talents and assets. The problem of talent and wealth outflow has raised pressing questions to the Chinese government, and a solution to this issue is yet to be determined. Popular destinations among Chinese emigrants Over the last decades, English speaking developed countries have been popular destinations for Chinese emigrants. In 2022 alone, the number of people from China naturalized as U.S. citizens had amounted to over 27,000 people, while nearly 68,000 had obtained legal permanent resident status as “green card” recipients. Among other popular immigration destinations for Chinese riches are Canada, Australia, Europe, and Singapore.