About this dataset

Context

The dataset tabulates the Melbourne population over the last 20 plus years. It lists the population for each year, along with the year on year change in population, as well as the change in percentage terms for each year. The dataset can be utilized to understand the population change of Melbourne across the last two decades. For example, using this dataset, we can identify if the population is declining or increasing. If there is a change, when the population peaked, or if it is still growing and has not reached its peak. We can also compare the trend with the overall trend of United States population over the same period of time.

Key observations

In 2023, the population of Melbourne was 86,960, a 0.48% increase year-by-year from 2022. Previously, in 2022, Melbourne population was 86,548, an increase of 0.59% compared to a population of 86,038 in 2021. Over the last 20 plus years, between 2000 and 2023, population of Melbourne increased by 14,122. In this period, the peak population was 86,960 in the year 2023. The numbers suggest that the population has not reached its peak yet and is showing a trend of further growth. Source: U.S. Census Bureau Population Estimates Program (PEP).

Content

When available, the data consists of estimates from the U.S. Census Bureau Population Estimates Program (PEP).

Data Coverage:

• From 2000 to 2023

Variables / Data Columns

• Year: This column displays the data year (Measured annually and for years 2000 to 2023)
• Population: The population for the specific year for the Melbourne is shown in this column.
• Year on Year Change: This column displays the change in Melbourne population for each year compared to the previous year.
• Change in Percent: This column displays the year on year change as a percentage. Please note that the sum of all percentages may not equal one due to rounding of values.

Good to know

Margin of Error

Data in the dataset are based on the estimates and are subject to sampling variability and thus a margin of error. Neilsberg Research recommends using caution when presening these estimates in your research.

Custom data

If you do need custom data for any of your research project, report or presentation, you can contact our research staff at research@neilsberg.com for a feasibility of a custom tabulation on a fee-for-service basis.

Inspiration

Neilsberg Research Team curates, analyze and publishes demographics and economic data from a variety of public and proprietary sources, each of which often includes multiple surveys and programs. The large majority of Neilsberg Research aggregated datasets and insights is made available for free download at https://www.neilsberg.com/research/.

Recommended for further research

This dataset is a part of the main dataset for Melbourne Population by Year. You can refer the same here

About this dataset

Context

The dataset tabulates the Melbourne population by year. The dataset can be utilized to understand the population trend of Melbourne.

Content

The dataset constitues the following datasets

• Melbourne, FL Population Dataset: Yearly Figures, Population Change, and Percent Change Analysis

Good to know

Margin of Error

Data in the dataset are based on the estimates and are subject to sampling variability and thus a margin of error. Neilsberg Research recommends using caution when presening these estimates in your research.

Custom data

If you do need custom data for any of your research project, report or presentation, you can contact our research staff at research@neilsberg.com for a feasibility of a custom tabulation on a fee-for-service basis.

Inspiration

Neilsberg Research Team curates, analyze and publishes demographics and economic data from a variety of public and proprietary sources, each of which often includes multiple surveys and programs. The large majority of Neilsberg Research aggregated datasets and insights is made available for free download at https://www.neilsberg.com/research/.

Historical dataset of population level and growth rate for the Melbourne, Australia metro area from 1950 to 2025.

About this dataset

Context

The dataset tabulates the West Melbourne population over the last 20 plus years. It lists the population for each year, along with the year on year change in population, as well as the change in percentage terms for each year. The dataset can be utilized to understand the population change of West Melbourne across the last two decades. For example, using this dataset, we can identify if the population is declining or increasing. If there is a change, when the population peaked, or if it is still growing and has not reached its peak. We can also compare the trend with the overall trend of United States population over the same period of time.

Key observations

In 2023, the population of West Melbourne was 29,144, a 1.07% increase year-by-year from 2022. Previously, in 2022, West Melbourne population was 28,836, an increase of 3.33% compared to a population of 27,906 in 2021. Over the last 20 plus years, between 2000 and 2023, population of West Melbourne increased by 18,873. In this period, the peak population was 29,144 in the year 2023. The numbers suggest that the population has not reached its peak yet and is showing a trend of further growth. Source: U.S. Census Bureau Population Estimates Program (PEP).

Content

When available, the data consists of estimates from the U.S. Census Bureau Population Estimates Program (PEP).

Data Coverage:

• From 2000 to 2023

Variables / Data Columns

• Year: This column displays the data year (Measured annually and for years 2000 to 2023)
• Population: The population for the specific year for the West Melbourne is shown in this column.
• Year on Year Change: This column displays the change in West Melbourne population for each year compared to the previous year.
• Change in Percent: This column displays the year on year change as a percentage. Please note that the sum of all percentages may not equal one due to rounding of values.

Good to know

Margin of Error

Data in the dataset are based on the estimates and are subject to sampling variability and thus a margin of error. Neilsberg Research recommends using caution when presening these estimates in your research.

Custom data

If you do need custom data for any of your research project, report or presentation, you can contact our research staff at research@neilsberg.com for a feasibility of a custom tabulation on a fee-for-service basis.

Inspiration

Neilsberg Research Team curates, analyze and publishes demographics and economic data from a variety of public and proprietary sources, each of which often includes multiple surveys and programs. The large majority of Neilsberg Research aggregated datasets and insights is made available for free download at https://www.neilsberg.com/research/.

Recommended for further research

This dataset is a part of the main dataset for West Melbourne Population by Year. You can refer the same here

Australia Population: Resident: Estimated: Annual: Victoria: Greater Melbourne data was reported at 4,843,781.000 Person in 2017. This records an increase from the previous number of 4,714,387.000 Person for 2016. Australia Population: Resident: Estimated: Annual: Victoria: Greater Melbourne data is updated yearly, averaging 4,217,604.500 Person from Jun 2006 (Median) to 2017, with 12 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 4,843,781.000 Person in 2017 and a record low of 3,760,760.000 Person in 2006. Australia Population: Resident: Estimated: Annual: Victoria: Greater Melbourne data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by Australian Bureau of Statistics. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Australia – Table AU.G002: Estimated Resident Population.

Humans have been living on the continent of Australia (name derived from "Terra Australis"; Latin for "the southern land") for approximately 65,000 years, however population growth was relatively slow until the nineteenth century. Europeans had made some contact with Australia as early as 1606, however there was no significant attempt at settlement until the late eighteenth century. By 1800, the population of Australia was approximately 350,000 people, and the majority of these were Indigenous Australians. As colonization progressed the number of ethnic Europeans increased while the Australian Aboriginal population was decimated through conflict, smallpox and other diseases, with some communities being exterminated completely, such as Aboriginal Tasmanians. Mass migration from Britain and China After the loss of its American colonies in the 1780s, the British Empire looked to other parts of the globe to expand its sphere of influence. In Australia, the first colonies were established in Sydney, Tasmania and Western Australia. Many of these were penal colonies which became home to approximately 164,000 British and Irish convicts who were transported to Australia between 1788 and 1868. As the decades progressed, expansion into the interior intensified, and the entire country was claimed by Britain in 1826. Inland colonization led to further conflict between European settlers and indigenous Australians, which cost the lives of thousands of natives. Inward expansion also saw the discovery of many natural resources, and most notably led to the gold rushes of the 1850s, which attracted substantial numbers of Chinese migrants to Australia. This mass migration from non-European countries eventually led to some restrictive policies being introduced, culminating with the White Australia Policy of 1901, which cemented ethnic-European dominance in Australian politics and society. These policies were not retracted until the second half of the 1900s. Independent Australia Australia changed its status to a British dominion in 1901, and eventually became independent in 1931. Despite this, Australia has remained a part of the British Commonwealth, and Australian forces (ANZAC) fought with the British and their Allies in both World Wars, and were instrumental in campaigns such as Gallipoli in WWI, and the South West Pacific Theater in WWII. The aftermath of both wars had a significant impact on the Australian population, with approximately 90 thousand deaths in both world wars combined, as well as 15 thousand deaths as a result of the Spanish flu pandemic following WWI, although Australia experienced a significant baby boom following the Second World War. In the past fifty years, Australia has promoted immigration from all over the world, and now has one of the strongest economies and highest living standards in the world, with a population that has grown to over 25 million people in 2020.

Graph and download economic data for Resident Population in Palm Bay-Melbourne-Titusville, FL (MSA) (MELPOP) from 2000 to 2024 about Palm Bay, FL, residents, population, and USA.

Sensitivity Testing

Sensitivity analysis

1. Conservation of biodiversity in urban environments depends on the responses of species to the intensity of urban development. ‘Land sharing’ and ‘land sparing’ represent alternate ends of a gradient that conceptualises a trade-off between the human population and biodiversity. We used a linear optimisation procedure to 1) identify the optimal allocation of land for people and nature, 2) assess whether the optimal allocation is more similar to land sparing or land sharing, and 3) examine how this might change under scenarios of human population growth. 2. We surveyed birds in 28 landscapes, each 25 ha in size, along a gradient of human population density (zero to ~1600 persons/25 ha) in the Greater Melbourne region, Australia. Species’ responses to population density were estimated using generalised additive models (GAMs). These relationships were then used to determine the optimal allocation of land among different categories of population density based on maximising a community index, the geometric mean of relative abundance (G) of bird species. 3. Human population density was an important driver of the reporting rate for 28 species. Response curves differed among ‘urban avoider’, ‘urban adapter’ and ‘urban exploiter’ species. For the current human population in the study area, optimal allocation of land included elements of both land sharing and land sparing. However, for scenarios of increased population size, optimal allocation converged upon a land sparing design. 5. Synthesis and applications. Urban areas represent a mosaic of land uses that offer habitats of differing quality. Land sharing, based on sustaining biota amongst residential areas, performed poorly under all scenarios due to its inability to support species that depend on natural or semi-natural habitat. To sustain more than a homogenised avifauna in urban regions, large tracts of natural vegetation are needed within, or adjacent to, the urban environment. Protecting natural areas on urban fringes will be critical to the safeguarding of nature in the future as urban populations and land-use inevitably expand.

About this dataset

Context

The dataset tabulates the Melbourne population over the last 20 plus years. It lists the population for each year, along with the year on year change in population, as well as the change in percentage terms for each year. The dataset can be utilized to understand the population change of Melbourne across the last two decades. For example, using this dataset, we can identify if the population is declining or increasing. If there is a change, when the population peaked, or if it is still growing and has not reached its peak. We can also compare the trend with the overall trend of United States population over the same period of time.

Key observations

In 2022, the population of Melbourne was 86,441, a 0.50% increase year-by-year from 2021. Previously, in 2021, Melbourne population was 86,008, an increase of 1.13% compared to a population of 85,047 in 2020. Over the last 20 plus years, between 2000 and 2022, population of Melbourne increased by 13,603. In this period, the peak population was 86,441 in the year 2022. The numbers suggest that the population has not reached its peak yet and is showing a trend of further growth. Source: U.S. Census Bureau Population Estimates Program (PEP).

Content

When available, the data consists of estimates from the U.S. Census Bureau Population Estimates Program (PEP).

Data Coverage:

• From 2000 to 2022

Variables / Data Columns

• Year: This column displays the data year (Measured annually and for years 2000 to 2022)
• Population: The population for the specific year for the Melbourne is shown in this column.
• Year on Year Change: This column displays the change in Melbourne population for each year compared to the previous year.
• Change in Percent: This column displays the year on year change as a percentage. Please note that the sum of all percentages may not equal one due to rounding of values.

Good to know

Margin of Error

Data in the dataset are based on the estimates and are subject to sampling variability and thus a margin of error. Neilsberg Research recommends using caution when presening these estimates in your research.

Custom data

If you do need custom data for any of your research project, report or presentation, you can contact our research staff at research@neilsberg.com for a feasibility of a custom tabulation on a fee-for-service basis.

Inspiration

Neilsberg Research Team curates, analyze and publishes demographics and economic data from a variety of public and proprietary sources, each of which often includes multiple surveys and programs. The large majority of Neilsberg Research aggregated datasets and insights is made available for free download at https://www.neilsberg.com/research/.

Recommended for further research

This dataset is a part of the main dataset for Melbourne Population by Year. You can refer the same here

This data provides the major urban area boundaries used when setting noise limits for commercial, industrial and trade premises. The Environment Protection Regulations 2021 and the incorporated …Show full descriptionThis data provides the major urban area boundaries used when setting noise limits for commercial, industrial and trade premises. The Environment Protection Regulations 2021 and the incorporated Noise Protocol document, Noise limit and assessment protocol for the control of noise from commercial, industrial and trade premises and entertainment venues (EPA publication 1826) set the limits for commercial, industrial and trade noise. There are two methods for setting the noise limits depending on the location of the residence or other noise sensitive area. • major urban areas – large regional towns, cities and Melbourne, or • rural areas. The major urban area boundaries are aligned with: • The Melbourne metropolitan Urban Growth Boundary (UGB) (Vicmap Planning - Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning, 2020) • If outside of the Melbourne UGB, the UGB of any other municipality with a population greater than 7,000 persons. Obtained from the relevant authority upon request or digitised from current published documentation. • If outside of a UGB, the Urban Centre and Localities (UCL) boundary (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2016) of an urban centre with a population greater than 7,000 persons, including land within the whole of any Residential, Industrial, Commercial or Urban Growth zone from the Planning Scheme Zones (Vicmap Planning - Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning, 2020) that are crossed by the UCL boundary. The dataset is generated each fortnight based on current planning scheme zones combined with the Melbourne UGB, the Greater Bendigo UGB, and the Urban Centre and Locality (UCL) ASGS Ed 2016 Digital Boundaries in ESRI Shapfile format’ [sic] from https://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/DetailsPage/1270.0.55.004July 2016?OpenDocument.

The Australian commercial real estate market, valued at $34.07 billion in 2025, is projected to experience robust growth, exhibiting a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 8.46% from 2025 to 2033. This expansion is fueled by several key drivers. Strong population growth in major cities like Sydney, Melbourne, and Brisbane is increasing demand for office, retail, and industrial spaces. Furthermore, the burgeoning e-commerce sector is driving significant growth in the logistics and warehousing segments. Government infrastructure investments and a generally positive economic outlook also contribute to this positive market trajectory. While rising interest rates and potential economic slowdown pose some constraints, the long-term fundamentals of the Australian economy and the ongoing need for modern commercial spaces are expected to mitigate these risks. The market is segmented by property type (office, retail, industrial & logistics, hospitality, and others) and by city (Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide, Canberra, Perth), reflecting diverse investment opportunities and regional variations in growth rates. Sydney and Melbourne are expected to remain dominant, given their established business ecosystems and high population densities. However, other cities such as Brisbane are witnessing significant growth driven by infrastructure development and population influx. The key players in this dynamic market, including Lendlease Corporation, Scentre Group Limited, and Mirvac, are well-positioned to capitalize on these growth opportunities. The segmentation of the market reveals significant potential within specific sectors. The industrial and logistics sector, driven by the e-commerce boom and supply chain optimization efforts, is anticipated to experience particularly strong growth. Similarly, the office sector, while facing some challenges from remote work trends, remains resilient due to the ongoing need for collaborative workspaces and central business district locations. The retail sector will continue to adapt to evolving consumer preferences, with a focus on experience-driven retail and omnichannel strategies. Careful consideration of factors like interest rate fluctuations, construction costs, and regulatory changes will be crucial for investors navigating the complexities of this dynamic market. The forecast period of 2025-2033 offers a promising outlook for sustained growth within this sector. Recent developments include: • October 2023: Costco is planning a major expansion in Australia, with several new warehouses under construction and several prime locations being considered for future locations. Costco currently operates 15 warehouses in Australia, with plans to expand to 20 within the next five years, based on current stores and potential locations., • July 2023: A 45-storey BTR tower will be developed by Lendlease and Japanese developer Daiwa House, completing the final phase of Lendlease's Melbourne Quarter project and its second Build-to-Rent (BTR) project in Australia. The USD 650 million deal, similar to Lend lease's first 443-unit BTR project under construction in the 5.5 hectares of mixed-use space at Brisbane Showground, is a stand-alone investment and is separate from the company's ongoing efforts to build a wider BTR partnership, which will include several assets.. Key drivers for this market are: Rapid Urbanization, Government Initiatives Actively promoting the Construction Activities. Potential restraints include: Rapid Urbanization, Government Initiatives Actively promoting the Construction Activities. Notable trends are: Retail real estate is expected to drive the market.

Colonisation is a fundamental ecological and evolutionary process that drives the distribution and abundance of organisms. The initial ability of colonists to establish is determined largely by the number of founders and their genetic background. We explore the importance of these demographic and genetic properties for longer term persistence and adaptation of populations colonising a novel habitat using experimental populations of Tribolium castaneum. We introduced individuals from three genetic backgrounds (inbred – outbred) into a novel environment at three founding sizes (2–32), and tracked populations for seven generations. Inbreeding had negative effects, whereas outbreeding generally had positive effects on establishment, population growth and long-term persistence. Severe bottlenecks due to small founding sizes reduced genetic variation and fitness but did not prevent adaptation if the founders originated from genetically diverse populations. Thus, we find important and largely independent roles for both demographic and genetic processes in driving colonisation success.

The Sewerage and Drainage Services industry has had limited expansion opportunities due to stunted price increases across the country. Regulatory controls and difficult economic conditions for downstream service users have forced businesses to limit price growth over the past five years, causing revenue to stagnate. Industry revenue is expected to decline at an annualised 1.1% over the five years through 2025-26, to total $12.8 billion, including a 1.3% decline anticipated in the current year. However, strong profit margins due to a lack of direct competition between service providers have limited the impact on bottom lines. Numerous service providers have also been working on futureproofing their wastewater networks by investing heavily in infrastructure upgrades. These initiatives aim to accommodate future population growth and renew ageing sewerage infrastructure. This focus on infrastructure investment can be seen in the merger of City West Water and Western Water to form Greater Western Water in Victoria. The merger led to a $1.7 billion commitment towards capital investment for western metropolitan suburbs in Melbourne, where population growth is rapid. Rising prices and demand growth are forecast to drive revenue growth over the next five years. The completion of several new and upgraded wastewater treatment plants will also enhance the industry's capability to support a growing population. Moreover, government policies and environmental challenges are set to shift the focus to initiatives like wastewater recycling. The Water Infrastructure for Sustainable and Efficient Regions (WISER) initiative will also support small-scale water infrastructure projects across regional Australia. This initiative will aid many rural sewerage and drainage service providers in significantly improving their water infrastructure to ensure longevity. Overall, revenue is projected to rise at an annualised 1.2% through the end of 2030-31, to $13.7 billion. However, profit margins are forecast to decline marginally over the period due to rising wage costs.

Australia's Sports and Recreation Facilities Operation industry has recovered since pandemic-related restrictions forced crowd limits and drove down revenue. While states with fewer lockdowns saw smaller declines, most operators experienced sharp revenue losses. Since 2022-23, record attendances across major sporting codes, due to AFL and NRL seasons that broke previous highs and standout events like the Australian Open and the Australian Grand Prix, have powered a swift rebound. Alongside these live sports, the return of international music tours (notably Taylor Swift’s sold-out run at the MCG) has helped fill scheduling gaps and diversify revenue.Revenue has grown at an annualised rate of 4.2% over the past five years, reaching $2.4 billion in 2024-25. This includes a current year growth rate of 1.2%. Despite this resurgence, large, government-backed venue operators continue to rely on public subsidies to offset depreciation and operating costs, which keeps industry-wide profit margins in the red.Looking ahead, the industry’s revenue trajectory remains strong. Ongoing population growth and rising sport participation at professional and community levels will drive demand for new and upgraded facilities. Urban expansion corridors, like Western Sydney, Greater Geelong and South-East Queensland, are already seeing significant investment in multipurpose precincts, while projects like Tasmania’s Macquarie Point Stadium and Victoria’s Wyndham City Stadium will open new revenue streams in the coming years. Festivals of non-sporting events, from major concerts to community functions, will continue to smooth seasonal volatility and bolster usage.Preparations for the 2032 Brisbane Olympic Games continue to encourage growth. State and federal governments have committed to extensive facility upgrades and greenfield developments, ensuring venues meet Olympic standards while leaving a legacy of modern infrastructure. That’s why industry revenue is poised to grow steadily through 2029-30 to reach $2.7 billion, growing at an annualised rate of 2.7%, driven by a blend of elite sporting events, community engagement and diversified entertainment offerings.

The value of commercial building activity in Australia was forecasted to amount to around **** billion Australian dollars in the 2025 fiscal year. This was around the same as the commercial building activity value as of fiscal year 2019, which reached over **** billion Australian dollars.

Commercial building activity boom

The short-term increase in commercial building activity was attributable to strong employment and population growth. Buildings such as shops, hospitals, cafes, restaurants, schools, and offices have been required to fill the needs of the increasing Australian population. In addition, warehouses, factories, and wholesale distribution facilities have been required to further support this growth. In the tourism sector, there has been a need for more accommodation options in the major tourist destinations in the country.

Office space demand

In the office segment, the nation’s larger cities such as Melbourne and Sydney have remained competitive with some of the lowest vacancy rates in the world. In Sydney, the recent COVID-19 outbreak seemed to have led to a decline in office leasing enquiries, and therefore an increase in the vacancy rate in 2020. The same trend was seen in the prime office vacancy rate in Melbourne. It is yet to be seen if the office space demand will return to pre-pandemic levels in the near future.

About this dataset

Context

The dataset tabulates the Melbourne Beach population over the last 20 plus years. It lists the population for each year, along with the year on year change in population, as well as the change in percentage terms for each year. The dataset can be utilized to understand the population change of Melbourne Beach across the last two decades. For example, using this dataset, we can identify if the population is declining or increasing. If there is a change, when the population peaked, or if it is still growing and has not reached its peak. We can also compare the trend with the overall trend of United States population over the same period of time.

Key observations

In 2023, the population of Melbourne Beach was 3,261, a 0.52% increase year-by-year from 2022. Previously, in 2022, Melbourne Beach population was 3,244, an increase of 0.46% compared to a population of 3,229 in 2021. Over the last 20 plus years, between 2000 and 2023, population of Melbourne Beach decreased by 59. In this period, the peak population was 3,339 in the year 2002. The numbers suggest that the population has already reached its peak and is showing a trend of decline. Source: U.S. Census Bureau Population Estimates Program (PEP).

Content

When available, the data consists of estimates from the U.S. Census Bureau Population Estimates Program (PEP).

Data Coverage:

• From 2000 to 2023

Variables / Data Columns

• Year: This column displays the data year (Measured annually and for years 2000 to 2023)
• Population: The population for the specific year for the Melbourne Beach is shown in this column.
• Year on Year Change: This column displays the change in Melbourne Beach population for each year compared to the previous year.
• Change in Percent: This column displays the year on year change as a percentage. Please note that the sum of all percentages may not equal one due to rounding of values.

Good to know

Margin of Error

Data in the dataset are based on the estimates and are subject to sampling variability and thus a margin of error. Neilsberg Research recommends using caution when presening these estimates in your research.

Custom data

If you do need custom data for any of your research project, report or presentation, you can contact our research staff at research@neilsberg.com for a feasibility of a custom tabulation on a fee-for-service basis.

Inspiration

Neilsberg Research Team curates, analyze and publishes demographics and economic data from a variety of public and proprietary sources, each of which often includes multiple surveys and programs. The large majority of Neilsberg Research aggregated datasets and insights is made available for free download at https://www.neilsberg.com/research/.

Recommended for further research

This dataset is a part of the main dataset for Melbourne Beach Population by Year. You can refer the same here

Colonization and expansion into novel landscapes determine the distribution and abundance of species in our rapidly changing ecosystems worldwide. Colonization events are crucibles for rapid evolution, but it is not known whether evolutionary changes arise mainly after successful colonization has occurred, or if evolution plays an immediate role, governing the growth and expansion speed of colonizing populations. There is evidence that spatial evolutionary processes can speed range expansion within a few generations because dispersal tendencies may evolve upwards at range edges. Additionally, rapid adaptation to a novel environment can increase population growth rates, which also promotes spread. However, the role of adaptive evolution and the relative contributions of spatial evolution and adaptation to expansion are unclear. Using a model system, red flour beetles (Tribolium castaneum), we either allowed or constrained evolution of populations colonizing a novel environment, and measured population growth and spread. At the end of the experiment we assessed the fitness and dispersal tendency of individuals originating either from the core or edge of evolving populations or from nonevolving populations in a common garden. Within six generations, evolving populations grew three times larger and spread 46% faster than populations in which evolution was constrained. Increased size and expansion speed were strongly driven by adaptation, whereas spatial evolutionary processes acting on edge subpopulations contributed minimally. This experimental evidence demonstrates that rapid evolution drives both population growth and expansion speed, and is thus crucial to consider for managing biological invasions and successfully introducing or reintroducing species for management and conservation.

Public transport services offer a cost-effective, convenient, safe and mostly environmentally friendly travel option to the general public. Prior to the pandemic passenger numbers were growing strongly as the population increased, particularly in Sydney and Melbourne, while public transport fares also expanded. However, travel patterns changed drastically during the pandemic in response to social distancing and lockdown measures, which greatly limited passenger numbers, negatively affecting demand for public transport. Overall, revenue for public transport providers is expected to decline at 3.2% per year over the five years through 2023-24, reaching $28.2 billion. This includes an anticipated increase of 1.9% in 2023-24, partly due to an ongoing, but slow, recovery in the number of commuters. More Australians than ever are living in urban areas, generating strong demand for transport options. Regional cities have also exhibited strong population growth, with residents demanding accessible transport options to and from these towns. Car transport costs and congestion on Australian roads have both increased, encouraging commuters to switch to public transport options. Operators have undertaken efforts to expand their networks and capacity to accommodate growing populations. However, government funding for public transport in many areas has been unable to keep pace with demand, causing some unreliability with services. Public transport providers are set to expand as Australia's population is forecast to increase steadily and workers are expected to increasingly be asked to return to the office, boosting demand for public transport. New capacity and networks across the country are due to open, while improvements to ticketing systems are also set to be implemented. These factors are set to boost passenger use, which, combined with fare increases, is poised to bolster revenue. Additionally, significant investments are being made to make public transport more environmentally friendly, supporting demand from environmentally conscious consumers. Overall, revenue is projected to increase at an average of 1.3% per year over the five years through 2028-29, to total $30.0 billion.