From January 2022 to July 2024, a global trend emerged as almost all advanced and emerging economies increased their central bank policy rates. This widespread tightening of monetary policy was in response to inflationary pressures and economic challenges. However, a shift occurred in the latter half of 2024, with most countries beginning to lower their rates, signaling a new phase in the global economic cycle and monetary policy approach. Since September 2023, ****** has consistently held the highest interest rate among the observed countries.

In May 2025, global inflation rates and central bank interest rates showed significant variation across major economies. Most economies initiated interest rate cuts from mid-2024 due to declining inflationary pressures. The U.S., UK, and EU central banks followed a consistent pattern of regular rate reductions throughout late 2024. In early 2025, Russia maintained the highest interest rate at 20 percent, while Japan retained the lowest at 0.5 percent. Varied inflation rates across major economies The inflation landscape varies considerably among major economies. China had the lowest inflation rate at -0.1 percent in May 2025. In contrast, Russia maintained a high inflation rate of 9.9 percent. These figures align with broader trends observed in early 2025, where China had the lowest inflation rate among major developed and emerging economies, while Russia's rate remained the highest. Central bank responses and economic indicators Central banks globally implemented aggressive rate hikes throughout 2022-23 to combat inflation. The European Central Bank exemplified this trend, raising rates from 0 percent in January 2022 to 4.5 percent by September 2023. A coordinated shift among major central banks began in mid-2024, with the ECB, Bank of England, and Federal Reserve initiating rate cuts, with forecasts suggesting further cuts through 2025 and 2026.

The benchmark interest rate in Japan was last recorded at 0.50 percent. This dataset provides - Japan Interest Rate - actual values, historical data, forecast, chart, statistics, economic calendar and news.

The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of monetary policy on financial asset prices in Poland. Following Gürkaynak et al. (2005) I test how many factors adequately explain the variability of short-term interest rates around MPC meetings, finding that there are two such factors. The first one has a structural interpretation as a “current interest rate change” factor, and the second one as a “future interest rate changes” factor, with the latter related to MPC communication. Regression analysis shows that, controlling for foreign interest rates and global risk aversion, both MPC actions and communication matter for government bond yields, and that communication is more important for stock prices. Furthermore, the foreign exchange rate used to depreciate (appreciate) after MPC statements signalling tighter (easier) future monetary policy. However, the effect disappeared at the end of the sample. For most of the sample the exchange rate would appreciate (depreciate) or would not change in a statistically significant manner after an increase (a decrease) of the current interest rate. The results indicate that not only changes of the current interest rate but also MPC communication matters for financial asset prices in Poland. It has important implications for the conduct of monetary policy, especially in a low inflation and low interest rate environment.

Key information about Italy Policy Rate

• Italy cash rate (Policy Rate: Month End: Main Refinancing Operations) was set at 2.90 % pa in Feb 2025, compared with 3.15 % pa in the previous Jan 2025.
• Italy Policy Rate averaged 1.25 % pa and is updated monthly, available from Jan 1999 to Feb 2025.
• The data reached an all-time high of 4.75 % pa in Apr 2001 and a record low of 0.00 % pa in Jun 2022.

Italy joined the Euro Area on January 1st, 1999, thus adopting the European Central Bank (ECB) monetary policy mechanisms.


Related information about Italy Policy Rate

• In the latest reports, Italy Short Term Interest Rate: Month End: EURIBOR: 3 Months was reported at -0.57 % pa in Nov 2021.
• Its Long Term Interest Rate (Long Term Interest Rate: Month Avg: Italy: ECB Harmonised ) was reported at 3.68 % pa in Jan 2025.
• Italy Exchange Rate against USD averaged 0.92 (USD/EUR) in Jun 2023.
• Its Real Effective Exchange Rate was 94.46 in Jun 2023.

Key information about Uruguay Policy Rate

• Uruguay cash rate (Policy Rate: Month End: Overnight Monetary Policy Rate) was set at 9.00 % pa in Feb 2025, compared with 8.75 % pa in the previous Jan 2025.
• Uruguay Policy Rate averaged 9.25 % pa and is updated monthly, available from Sep 2007 to Feb 2025.
• The data reached an all-time high of 11.50 % pa in Mar 2023 and a record low of 4.50 % pa in Jul 2021.

Related information about Uruguay Policy Rate

• In the latest reports, Uruguay Short Term Interest Rates: Month End: Central Bank Bills: Peso: 3 Month was reported at 9.58 % pa in Feb 2025.
• Its Long Term Interest Rate (Long Term Interest Rate: Month End: Uruguay: Sovereign Debt Bond CUD Yield: 10 Years) was reported at 2.74 % pa in Jul 2021.
• Uruguay Exchange Rate against USD averaged 38.20 (USD/UYU) in Jun 2023.
• Its Real Effective Exchange Rate was 48.14 in Jan 2025.

The U.S. federal funds effective rate underwent a dramatic reduction in early 2020 in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. The rate plummeted from 1.58 percent in February 2020 to 0.65 percent in March, and further decreased to 0.05 percent in April. This sharp reduction, accompanied by the Federal Reserve's quantitative easing program, was implemented to stabilize the economy during the global health crisis. After maintaining historically low rates for nearly two years, the Federal Reserve began a series of rate hikes in early 2022, with the rate moving from 0.33 percent in April 2022 to 5.33 percent in August 2023. The rate remained unchanged for over a year, before the Federal Reserve initiated its first rate cut in nearly three years in September 2024, bringing the rate to 5.13 percent. By December 2024, the rate was cut to 4.48 percent, signaling a shift in monetary policy in the second half of 2024. In January 2025, the Federal Reserve implemented another cut, setting the rate at 4.33 percent, which remained unchanged throughout the following months. What is the federal funds effective rate? The U.S. federal funds effective rate determines the interest rate paid by depository institutions, such as banks and credit unions, that lend reserve balances to other depository institutions overnight. Changing the effective rate in times of crisis is a common way to stimulate the economy, as it has a significant impact on the whole economy, such as economic growth, employment, and inflation. Central bank policy rates The adjustment of interest rates in response to the COVID-19 pandemic was a coordinated global effort. In early 2020, central banks worldwide implemented aggressive monetary easing policies to combat the economic crisis. The U.S. Federal Reserve's dramatic reduction of its federal funds rate - from 1.58 percent in February 2020 to 0.05 percent by April - mirrored similar actions taken by central banks globally. While these low rates remained in place throughout 2021, mounting inflationary pressures led to a synchronized tightening cycle beginning in 2022, with central banks pushing rates to multi-year highs. By mid-2024, as inflation moderated across major economies, central banks began implementing their first rate cuts in several years, with the U.S. Federal Reserve, Bank of England, and European Central Bank all easing monetary policy.

Key information about China Policy Rate

• China cash rate (Policy Rate: Month End: China: Rediscount Rate) was set at 2.65 % pa in Jun 2023, compared with 2.75 % pa in the previous May 2023.
• China Policy Rate averaged 3.00 % pa and is updated monthly, available from Jan 2016 to Jun 2023.
• The data reached an all-time high of 3.30 % pa in Oct 2019 and a record low of 2.65 % pa in Jun 2023.

Other key monetary policy rates of The People's Bank of China are also 1-Year Nominal Lending Rate and 7-Day Reverse Repurchase Rate.


Related information about China Policy Rate

• In the latest reports, China Short Term Interest Rate: Month End: SHIBOR: 3 Months was reported at 2.22 % pa in May 2023.
• Its Long Term Interest Rate (Treasury Bond Yield: Interbank: Spot Yield: 10 year) was reported at 2.65 % pa in Jun 2023.
• China Exchange Rate against USD averaged 6.99 (USD/RMB) in May 2023.
• Its Real Effective Exchange Rate was 140.85 in Apr 2023.

From 2003 to 2025, the central banks of the United States, United Kingdom, and European Union exhibited remarkably similar interest rate patterns, reflecting shared global economic conditions. In the early 2000s, rates were initially low to stimulate growth, then increased as economies showed signs of overheating prior to 2008. The financial crisis that year prompted sharp rate cuts to near-zero levels, which persisted for an extended period to support economic recovery. The COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 led to further rate reductions to historic lows, aiming to mitigate economic fallout. However, surging inflation in 2022 triggered a dramatic policy shift, with the Federal Reserve, Bank of England, and European Central Bank significantly raising rates to curb price pressures. As inflation stabilized in late 2023 and early 2024, the ECB and Bank of England initiated rate cuts by mid-2024, and the Federal Reserve also implemented its first cut in three years, with forecasts suggesting a gradual decrease in all major interest rates between 2025 and 2026. Divergent approaches within the European Union While the ECB sets a benchmark rate for the Eurozone, individual EU countries have adopted diverse strategies to address their unique economic circumstances. For instance, Hungary set the highest rate in the EU at 13 percent in September 2023, gradually reducing it to 6.5 percent by October 2024. In contrast, Sweden implemented more aggressive cuts, lowering its rate to 2.25 percent by February 2025, the lowest among EU members. These variations highlight the complex economic landscape that European central banks must navigate, balancing inflation control with economic growth support. Global context and future outlook The interest rate changes in major economies have had far-reaching effects on global financial markets. Government bond yields, for example, reflect these policy shifts and investor sentiment. As of December 2024, the United States had the highest 10-year government bond yield among developed economies at 4.59 percent, while Switzerland had the lowest at 0.27 percent. These rates serve as important benchmarks for borrowing costs and economic expectations worldwide.

Much has happened in the world of central banking in the past decade. In this paper, I focus on three issues associated with the zero lower bound (ZLB) on short-term nominal interest rates and the nexus between monetary policy and financial stability: 1) whether we are moving toward a permanently lower long-run equilibrium real interest rate; 2) what steps can be taken to mitigate the constraints imposed by the ZLB; and 3) whether and how financial stability considerations should be incorporated in the conduct of monetary policy. These important topics deserve the attention of both academic and government professionals.

Between January 2018 and May 2025, the United Kingdom's consumer price inflation rate showed notable volatility. The rate hit its lowest point at *** percent in August 2020 and peaked at *** percent in October 2022. By September 2024, inflation had moderated to *** percent, but the following months saw inflation increase again. The Bank of England's interest rate policy closely tracked these inflationary trends. Rates remained low at -* percent until April 2020, when they were reduced to *** percent in response to economic challenges. A series of rate increases followed, reaching a peak of **** percent from August 2023 to July 2024. The central bank then initiated rate cuts in August and November 2024, lowering the rate to **** percent, signaling a potential shift in monetary policy. In February 2025, the Bank of England implemented another rate cut, setting the bank rate at *** percent, which was further reduced to **** percent in May 2025. Global context of inflation and interest rates The UK's experience reflects a broader international trend of rising inflation and subsequent central bank responses. From January 2022 to July 2024, advanced and emerging economies alike increased their policy rates to counter inflationary pressures. However, a shift began in late 2024, with many countries, including the UK, starting to lower rates. This change suggests a potential new phase in the global economic cycle and monetary policy approach. Comparison with other major economies The UK's monetary policy decisions align closely with those of other major economies. The United States, for instance, saw its federal funds rate peak at **** percent in August 2023, mirroring the UK's rate trajectory. Similarly, central bank rates in the EU all increased drastically between 2022 and 2024. These synchronized movements reflect the global nature of inflationary pressures and the coordinated efforts of central banks to maintain economic stability. As with the UK, both the U.S. and EU began considering rate cuts in late 2024, signaling a potential shift in the global economic landscape.

The benchmark interest rate In the Euro Area was last recorded at 2.15 percent. This dataset provides - Euro Area Interest Rate - actual values, historical data, forecast, chart, statistics, economic calendar and news.

Korea Interest Rate: Loans to Government data was reported at 1.685 % pa in Nov 2018. This stayed constant from the previous number of 1.685 % pa for Oct 2018. Korea Interest Rate: Loans to Government data is updated monthly, averaging 4.950 % pa from Jan 1994 (Median) to Nov 2018, with 299 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 5.450 % pa in Dec 2008 and a record low of 1.362 % pa in Dec 2017. Korea Interest Rate: Loans to Government data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by The Bank of Korea. The data is categorized under Global Database’s South Korea – Table KR.M001: Monetary Policy Rates.

The benchmark interest rate in Pakistan was last recorded at 11 percent. This dataset provides - Pakistan Interest Rate - actual values, historical data, forecast, chart, statistics, economic calendar and news.

European Union central banks navigated a complex economic landscape between 2022 and 2025, with interest rates initially rising across member states. However, a pivotal shift occurred in late 2023 as most countries began lowering their rates, reflecting the delicate balance between controlling inflation and supporting economic growth. In the Euro area, the European Central Bank (ECB) led this trend by cutting interest rates from 4.5 percent to 3.15 percent in 2024, implementing four strategic rate reductions throughout the year. This approach was nearly universally adopted, with Poland being the sole EU country not reducing its rates during this period. The ECB continued the series of reductions in early 2025, setting the rate at 2.4 percent in April 2025. Global context and policy shifts The interest rate changes in the EU mirror similar movements in other major economies. The United States, United Kingdom, and European Union central banks followed remarkably similar patterns from 2003 to 2024, responding to shared global economic conditions. After maintaining near-zero rates following the 2008 financial crisis and the COVID-19 pandemic, these institutions sharply raised rates in 2022 to combat surging inflation. By mid-2024, the European Central Bank and Bank of England initiated rate cuts, with the Federal Reserve following suit. Varied approaches within the EU Despite the overall trend, individual EU countries have adopted diverse strategies. Hungary, for instance, set the highest rate in the EU at 13 percent in September 2023, gradually reducing it to 6.5 percent by September 2024. In contrast, Sweden implemented the most aggressive cuts, lowering its rate to 2.25 percent by February 2025, the lowest among EU members. These divergent approaches highlight the unique economic challenges faced by each country and the flexibility required in monetary policy to address specific national circumstances.

August 2024 marked a significant shift in the UK's monetary policy, as it saw the first reduction in the official bank base interest rate since August 2023. This change came after a period of consistent rate hikes that began in late 2021. In a bid to minimize the economic effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, the Bank of England cut the official bank base rate in March 2020 to a record low of *** percent. This historic low came just one week after the Bank of England cut rates from **** percent to **** percent in a bid to prevent mass job cuts in the United Kingdom. It remained at *** percent until December 2021 and was increased to one percent in May 2022 and to **** percent in October 2022. After that, the bank rate increased almost on a monthly basis, reaching **** percent in August 2023. It wasn't until August 2024 that the first rate decrease since the previous year occurred, signaling a potential shift in monetary policy. Why do central banks adjust interest rates? Central banks, including the Bank of England, adjust interest rates to manage economic stability and control inflation. Their strategies involve a delicate balance between two main approaches. When central banks raise interest rates, their goal is to cool down an overheated economy. Higher rates curb excessive spending and borrowing, which helps to prevent runaway inflation. This approach is typically used when the economy is growing too quickly or when inflation is rising above desired levels. Conversely, when central banks lower interest rates, they aim to encourage borrowing and investment. This strategy is employed to stimulate economic growth during periods of slowdown or recession. Lower rates make it cheaper for businesses and individuals to borrow money, which can lead to increased spending and investment. This dual approach allows central banks to maintain a balance between promoting growth and controlling inflation, ensuring long-term economic stability. Additionally, adjusting interest rates can influence currency values, impacting international trade and investment flows, further underscoring their critical role in a nation's economic health. Recent interest rate trends Between 2021 and 2024, most advanced and emerging economies experienced a period of regular interest rate hikes. This trend was driven by several factors, including persistent supply chain disruptions, high energy prices, and robust demand pressures. These elements combined to create significant inflationary trends, prompting central banks to raise rates in an effort to temper spending and borrowing. However, in 2024, a shift began to occur in global monetary policy. The European Central Bank (ECB) was among the first major central banks to reverse this trend by cutting interest rates. This move signaled a change in approach aimed at addressing growing economic slowdowns and supporting growth.

Key information about Japan Policy Rate

• Japan cash rate (Policy Rate: Month End: Japan: Complementary Deposit Facility Interest Rate) was set at -0.10 % pa in Jun 2023, compared with -0.10 % pa in the previous May 2023.
• Japan Policy Rate averaged -0.10 % pa and is updated monthly, available from Nov 2008 to Jun 2023.
• The data reached an all-time high of 0.10 % pa in Jan 2016 and a record low of -0.10 % pa in Jun 2023.

As of April 2013, Bank of Japan has switched to the amount of monetary base as its main operating tool. Under this arrangement, the Complementary Deposit Facility Interest Rate can be used as an indication of monetary policy. It represents the interest paid on excess reserve balances (balances held at the account with the Bank of Japan in excess of required reserves under the reserve deposit requirement system).


Related information about Japan Policy Rate

• In the latest reports, Japan Short Term Interest Rate: Month End: TIBOR: Japanese Yen: 3 Months was reported at 0.07 % pa in Jun 2023.
• Its Long Term Interest Rate (Bonds Yield: Government Bonds: Newly Issued: 10 Years: Month End) was reported at 0.43 % pa in May 2023.
• Japan Exchange Rate against USD averaged 137.05 (USD/JPY) in May 2023.
• Its Real Effective Exchange Rate was 59.46 in May 2023.

Key information about Luxembourg Policy Rate

• Luxembourg cash rate (Policy Rate: Month End: Main Refinancing Operations) was set at 2.90 % pa in Feb 2025, compared with 3.15 % pa in the previous Jan 2025.
• Luxembourg Policy Rate averaged 1.25 % pa and is updated monthly, available from Jan 1999 to Feb 2025.
• The data reached an all-time high of 4.75 % pa in Apr 2001 and a record low of 0.00 % pa in Jun 2022.

Luxembourg joined the Euro Area on January 1st, 1999, thus adopting the European Central Bank (ECB) monetary policy mechanisms.


Related information about Luxembourg Policy Rate

• In the latest reports, Luxembourg Short Term Interest Rate: Month End: EURIBOR: 3 Months was reported at -0.57 % pa in Nov 2021.
• Its Long Term Interest Rate (Long Term Interest Rate: Month Avg: Luxembourg: ECB Harmonised) was reported at 2.64 % pa in Dec 2024.
• Luxembourg Exchange Rate against USD averaged 0.92 (USD/EUR) in Jun 2023.
• Its Real Effective Exchange Rate was 96.44 in Jan 2025.

Policy interest rates in the U.S. and Europe are forecasted to decrease gradually between 2024 and 2027, following exceptional increases triggered by soaring inflation between 2021 and 2023. The U.S. federal funds rate stood at **** percent at the end of 2023, the European Central Bank deposit rate at **** percent, and the Swiss National Bank policy rate at **** percent. With inflationary pressures stabilizing, policy interest rates are forecast to decrease in each observed region. The U.S. federal funds rate is expected to decrease to *** percent, the ECB refi rate to **** percent, the Bank of England bank rate to **** percent, and the Swiss National Bank policy rate to **** percent by 2025. An interesting aspect to note is the impact of these interest rate changes on various economic factors such as growth, employment, and inflation. The impact of central bank policy rates The U.S. federal funds effective rate, crucial in determining the interest rate paid by depository institutions, experienced drastic changes in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. The subsequent slight changes in the effective rate reflected the efforts to stimulate the economy and manage economic factors such as inflation. Such fluctuations in the federal funds rate have had a significant impact on the overall economy. The European Central Bank's decision to cut its fixed interest rate in June 2024 for the first time since 2016 marked a significant shift in attitude towards economic conditions. The reasons behind the fluctuations in the ECB's interest rate reflect its mandate to ensure price stability and manage inflation, shedding light on the complex interplay between interest rates and economic factors. Inflation and real interest rates The relationship between inflation and interest rates is critical in understanding the actions of central banks. Central banks' efforts to manage inflation through interest rate adjustments reveal the intricate balance between economic growth and inflation. Additionally, the concept of real interest rates, adjusted for inflation, provides valuable insights into the impact of inflation on the economy.

The benchmark interest rate in the United Kingdom was last recorded at 4.25 percent. This dataset provides - United Kingdom Interest Rate - actual values, historical data, forecast, chart, statistics, economic calendar and news.