The U.S. federal funds rate peaked in 2023 at its highest level since the 2007-08 financial crisis, reaching 5.33 percent by December 2023. A significant shift in monetary policy occurred in the second half of 2024, with the Federal Reserve implementing regular rate cuts. By December 2024, the rate had declined to 4.48 percent. What is a central bank rate? The federal funds rate determines the cost of overnight borrowing between banks, allowing them to maintain necessary cash reserves and ensure financial system liquidity. When this rate rises, banks become more inclined to hold rather than lend money, reducing the money supply. While this decreased lending slows economic activity, it helps control inflation by limiting the circulation of money in the economy. Historic perspective The federal funds rate historically follows cyclical patterns, falling during recessions and gradually rising during economic recoveries. Some central banks, notably the European Central Bank, went beyond traditional monetary policy by implementing both aggressive asset purchases and negative interest rates.

This dataset supports the research exploring the impact of monetary policy instruments on the Colombian economy, focusing on the classical dichotomy and monetary neutrality. The analysis delves into how monetary policy, including instruments such as interest rates and money supply, influences both nominal and real variables in the economy. It also highlights the relationship between monetary policy and economic stability, particularly how central banks manage inflation and economic growth. Key sections explore the separation between nominal and real variables as explained by the classical dichotomy, and the principle of monetary neutrality, which argues that changes in money supply affect nominal variables without impacting real economic factors.

The dataset is structured around a combination of theoretical insights and simulations that analyze the effectiveness of monetary neutrality in the Colombian context, given both domestic and international economic challenges such as the war in Ukraine and agricultural sector disruptions. Through simulations, the dataset demonstrates the effects of monetary expansion on variables like inflation, production, and employment, providing a framework for understanding current economic trends and proposing solutions to socio-economic challenges in Colombia.

The Eurozone's money supply has experienced significant growth over the past two decades, with the M2 measure reaching approximately 15.6 trillion euros by the end of 2024. This substantial increase from 4.6 trillion euros in 2001 reflects the expanding monetary base in the euro area. However, 2023 marked a notable deviation from this trend, as it was the first year in the observed period where the money supply in the euro area decreased. Components of money supply M2 is a broader measure of money supply that includes cash, checking deposits, and convertible near money. It encompasses the more narrow M1 measure, which consists of the most liquid components, such as currency in circulation and overnight deposits. As of December 2024, the Eurozone's M1 money supply stood at 10.57 trillion euros, while M2 reached 15.6 trillion euros. These figures are used by central banks to forecast inflation and interest rates, playing a crucial role in shaping monetary policy. Comparison with other regions While the Eurozone has seen steady growth in its money supply, other major economies have experienced their own unique trajectories. In the United States, for instance, the M2 money supply reached 20.86 trillion U.S. dollars in 2023, showing a slight decrease from the previous year. Both the Eurozone and the U.S. saw exceptional increases in their money supply during 2020, largely due to quantitative easing measures implemented in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. This global economic event had a profound impact on monetary policies across different regions, influencing the money supply dynamics worldwide.

Brazil Broad Money Supply: M3: Operation Committed with Federal Securities data was reported at 113,074.640 BRL mn in Jun 2018. This records an increase from the previous number of 103,266.242 BRL mn for May 2018. Brazil Broad Money Supply: M3: Operation Committed with Federal Securities data is updated monthly, averaging 29,866.033 BRL mn from Jul 1994 (Median) to Jun 2018, with 288 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 218,686.067 BRL mn in Mar 2016 and a record low of 0.000 BRL mn in Jul 1999. Brazil Broad Money Supply: M3: Operation Committed with Federal Securities data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by Central Bank of Brazil. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Brazil – Table BR.KAA018: Money Supply. Brazilian Central Bank has made changes in methodology of Financial System Credit Data in February of 2013 after 13 years following the same methodology. These changes are necessary face the expansion of credit, favored by the improvement of the indicators of employment and income, continuous and sharp reduction of the interest rates and by important institutional advances. It is essential the availability of new information, in particular, which allows more detailed monitoring of credit arrangements with targeted resources, especially real estate financing, whose dynamism has contributed to reducing the housing deficit in the country. The main change includes coverage of data on concessions, interest rates, terms and default rates that were extended to the segment of directed credit and also became necessary to further detailing the statistical framework, to enable identification of the terms most relevant as well as reduce the relative share of loans not classified - embedded in 'other receivables'. The Money Supply statistics were revised in August 2018, incorporating methodological updates to increase compliance with international standards and consistency with other sets of macroeconomic statistics. The revision consists the inclusion of cooperatives among the institutions that meke up the money issuing system, resulting in M1 expansion, and the exclusion of non-residents assets, impacting mainly on M4. Replacement series ID: 408100927

The phrase "liquidity effect" was introduced by Milton Friedman (1969) to describe the first of three effects on interest rates caused by an exogenous change in the money supply. The lack of empirical support for the liquidity effect using monthly and quarterly monetary and reserve aggregates data led Hamilton (1997) to suggest that more convincing evidence of the liquidity effect could be obtained with daily data -- the daily liquidity effect. This paper investigates the implications of the daily liquidity effect for Friedman's liquidity effect using a more comprehensive model of the Federal Reserve's daily operating procedure than has been previously used in the literature.

Table 123 : Hong Kong Dollar Interest Settlement Rates [Traditional Chinese]

Brazil Broad Money Supply: M4: Federal Securities data was reported at 945,884.462 BRL mn in Jun 2018. This records an increase from the previous number of 915,024.308 BRL mn for May 2018. Brazil Broad Money Supply: M4: Federal Securities data is updated monthly, averaging 159,917.679 BRL mn from Jul 1994 (Median) to Jun 2018, with 288 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 945,884.462 BRL mn in Jun 2018 and a record low of 18,217.380 BRL mn in Dec 1994. Brazil Broad Money Supply: M4: Federal Securities data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by Central Bank of Brazil. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Brazil – Table BR.KAA018: Money Supply. Brazilian Central Bank has made changes in methodology of Financial System Credit Data in February of 2013 after 13 years following the same methodology. These changes are necessary face the expansion of credit, favored by the improvement of the indicators of employment and income, continuous and sharp reduction of the interest rates and by important institutional advances. It is essential the availability of new information, in particular, which allows more detailed monitoring of credit arrangements with targeted resources, especially real estate financing, whose dynamism has contributed to reducing the housing deficit in the country. The main change includes coverage of data on concessions, interest rates, terms and default rates that were extended to the segment of directed credit and also became necessary to further detailing the statistical framework, to enable identification of the terms most relevant as well as reduce the relative share of loans not classified - embedded in 'other receivables'. The Money Supply statistics were revised in August 2018, incorporating methodological updates to increase compliance with international standards and consistency with other sets of macroeconomic statistics. The revision consists the inclusion of cooperatives among the institutions that meke up the money issuing system, resulting in M1 expansion, and the exclusion of non-residents assets, impacting mainly on M4. Replacement series ID: 408100947

The Federal Reserve's balance sheet has undergone significant changes since 2007, reflecting its response to major economic crises. From a modest *** trillion U.S. dollars at the end of 2007, it ballooned to approximately **** trillion U.S. dollars by June 2025. This dramatic expansion, particularly during the 2008 financial crisis and the COVID-19 pandemic - both of which resulted in negative annual GDP growth in the U.S. - showcases the Fed's crucial role in stabilizing the economy through expansionary monetary policies. Impact on inflation and interest rates The Fed's expansionary measures, while aimed at stimulating economic growth, have had notable effects on inflation and interest rates. Following the quantitative easing in 2020, inflation in the United States reached ***** percent in 2022, the highest since 1991. However, by *************, inflation had declined to *** percent. Concurrently, the Federal Reserve implemented a series of interest rate hikes, with the rate peaking at **** percent in ***********, before the first rate cut since ************** occurred in **************. Financial implications for the Federal Reserve The expansion of the Fed's balance sheet and subsequent interest rate hikes have had significant financial implications. In 2023, the Fed reported a negative net income of ***** billion U.S. dollars, a stark contrast to the ***** billion U.S. dollars profit in 2022. This unprecedented shift was primarily due to rapidly rising interest rates, which caused the Fed's interest expenses to soar to over *** billion U.S. dollars in 2023. Despite this, the Fed's net interest income on securities acquired through open market operations reached a record high of ****** billion U.S. dollars in the same year.

This paper investigates the long-run and short-run relationship between money supply and inflation in Pakistan, utilizing annual data spanning from 1981 to 2021. The key objective is to assess the impact of monetary policy, specifically money supply, on inflation dynamics in the country. To achieve this, the Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) bounds testing approach is employed, which is suitable for analyzing cointegration among variables with mixed integration orders. The results reveal both short and long-run cointegration between inflation, money supply, unemployment, and interest rates. Notably, unemployment demonstrates a negative correlation with inflation, while money supply and interest rates exhibit a positive relationship. These findings underscore the importance of dedicated policy measures to manage inflation effectively. The paper concludes by recommending the establishment of a policy implementation body and collaboration between the government and the central bank to ensure financial stability and control inflation through well-calibrated monetary and fiscal policies.

In 2023, the money supply in Indonesia grew by approximately *** percent from the previous year. An increase in the supply of money generally lowers interest rates, resulting more investment developments and an increase of consumers' money, thereby stimulating spending.

The determination of the money supply for a period of missing key statistics, registries, and a central bank-note-system which was still in development had been neglected for a long time. The author has used only sources difficult of access. His study represents a first attempt to give a comprehensive picture of monetary developments and their significance for the period of industrialization in Germany. In the center of this investigation are the following topics:1. The systematic processing of statistical data on money supply changes from 1835 to 1913 in the form of time series.2. A description of the development of the particular money-types or types of money-surrogates, including the causes of their changes.3. Analysis and discussion of interdependencies between money supply and course of the economy.4. Changes in the total money supply and its relations to economic development. Therefore the time-period under investigation was divided into four phases:- The early days of industrialization and 1850,- The period of economic recovery from 1850 to 1873,- The stagnation from 1873 to 1894,- The period of economic recovery from 1894 to 1913. Datatables with time-series in the search- and downloadsystem HISTAT (Historical Statistics, www.histat.gesis.org): A. changes in money supply in Germany in the era of industrialization (1835 to 1913) (Tables 1 to 8 of Sprenger, 1982) A.1 The development of metal money supply in Germany (1835-1913)A.2 The development of banknote stocks (1835-1913)A.3 The development of the state paper money stock (1835-1913)A.4 The development of paper money supply (1835-1913)A.5 The composition of the paper money stock (1835-1913)A.6 The development of the book money supply (1835-1913)A.7 The development of the coin money supply (1835-1913)A.8 The composition of the coin money supply (1835-1913)A.9 development and composition of the money supply in Britain, France and Germany (1850-1913) B. The development of the money supply in the era of industrialization (1835 to 1913) (Tables 9 to 11 of Sprenger, 1982) B.1 The development of the money supply in various accruals (1835-1913)B.2 The composition of the money supply in term of a more comprehensive version (1835-1913)B.3 The development of the velocity of money (1850-1913) C. Development of the money supply from 1918 to 1945 C.1 The development of the of coin money in billions of marks (1913-1918)C.2 Development of prices and dollar exchange rate (1913-1918)C.3a The development of coin money supply and the floating of national debt (1918-1923)C.3b The development of coin money supply and the floating of national debt (1918-1923)C.4 price-development and dollar exchange rate (1918-1923)C.5 development and composition of money supply (1924-1933)C.6 The development of money supply, of price level, of national income and national debt under the period of National Socialism (1933-1945)C.7 The development of the coin money supply (1928-1945)C.8 composition of the monetary base in Germany (1914-1922) D. The development of the money supply in the Federal Republic of Germany D.1 money supply and interest rates in the Federal Republic of Germany (1948-1998) E. Additional time series E.1 Additional time series (1835-1959)E.2 The composition of the cash stock - The Reichsbank (1876-1921)E.3 Average composition of the metallic money supply - the Reichsbank (1876-1921)E.4 giro transactions - the Reichsbank (1876-1924) Timeseries are downloadable via the online system HISTAT (www.histat.gesis.org).

Brazil Broad Money Supply: M2: Savings Deposit data was reported at 751,486.708 BRL mn in Jun 2018. This records an increase from the previous number of 744,039.511 BRL mn for May 2018. Brazil Broad Money Supply: M2: Savings Deposit data is updated monthly, averaging 170,037.040 BRL mn from Jul 1994 (Median) to Jun 2018, with 288 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 751,486.708 BRL mn in Jun 2018 and a record low of 41,816.679 BRL mn in Jul 1994. Brazil Broad Money Supply: M2: Savings Deposit data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by Central Bank of Brazil. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Brazil – Table BR.KAA018: Money Supply. Brazilian Central Bank has made changes in methodology of Financial System Credit Data in February of 2013 after 13 years following the same methodology. These changes are necessary face the expansion of credit, favored by the improvement of the indicators of employment and income, continuous and sharp reduction of the interest rates and by important institutional advances. It is essential the availability of new information, in particular, which allows more detailed monitoring of credit arrangements with targeted resources, especially real estate financing, whose dynamism has contributed to reducing the housing deficit in the country. The main change includes coverage of data on concessions, interest rates, terms and default rates that were extended to the segment of directed credit and also became necessary to further detailing the statistical framework, to enable identification of the terms most relevant as well as reduce the relative share of loans not classified - embedded in 'other receivables'. The Money Supply statistics were revised in August 2018, incorporating methodological updates to increase compliance with international standards and consistency with other sets of macroeconomic statistics. The revision consists the inclusion of cooperatives among the institutions that meke up the money issuing system, resulting in M1 expansion, and the exclusion of non-residents assets, impacting mainly on M4. Replacement series ID: 408100847

The benchmark interest rate in Russia was last recorded at 18 percent. This dataset provides the latest reported value for - Russia Interest Rate - plus previous releases, historical high and low, short-term forecast and long-term prediction, economic calendar, survey consensus and news.

This paper investigates the long-run and short-run relationship between money supply and inflation in Pakistan, utilizing annual data spanning from 1981 to 2021. The key objective is to assess the impact of monetary policy, specifically money supply, on inflation dynamics in the country. To achieve this, the Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) bounds testing approach is employed, which is suitable for analyzing cointegration among variables with mixed integration orders. The results reveal both short and long-run cointegration between inflation, money supply, unemployment, and interest rates. Notably, unemployment demonstrates a negative correlation with inflation, while money supply and interest rates exhibit a positive relationship. These findings underscore the importance of dedicated policy measures to manage inflation effectively. The paper concludes by recommending the establishment of a policy implementation body and collaboration between the government and the central bank to ensure financial stability and control inflation through well-calibrated monetary and fiscal policies.

A monthly and quarterly data set spanning July 1995 to December 2016 of the following macro-economic variables 1. South African stock market 2. South African GDP3. United States GDP 4. South African interest rate 5. US interest rate 6. South African inflation rate 7. US inflation rate 8. South African Money Supply 9. Rand/Dollar Exchange 10. FTSE

In June 2024, the European Central Bank (ECB) began reducing its fixed interest rate for the first time since 2016, implementing a series of cuts. The rate decreased from 4.5 percent to 3.15 percent by year-end: a 0.25 percentage point cut in June, followed by additional reductions in September, October, and December. The central bank implemented other cuts in early 2025, setting the rate at 2.4 percent in April 2025. This marked a significant shift from the previous rate hike cycle, which began in July 2022 when the ECB raised rates to 0.5 percent and subsequently increased them almost monthly, reaching 4.5 percent by December 2023 - the highest level since the 2007-2008 global financial crisis. How does this ensure liquidity? Banks typically hold only a fraction of their capital in cash, measured by metrics like the Tier 1 capital ratio. Since this ratio is low, banks prefer to allocate most of their capital to revenue-generating loans. When their cash reserves fall too low, banks borrow from the ECB to cover short-term liquidity needs. On the other hand, commercial banks can also deposit excess funds with the ECB at a lower interest rate. Reasons for fluctuations
The ECB’s primary mandate is to maintain price stability. The Euro area inflation rate is, in theory, the key indicator guiding the ECB's actions. When the fixed interest rate is lower, commercial banks are more likely to borrow from the ECB, increasing the money supply and, in turn, driving inflation higher. When inflation rises, the ECB increases the fixed interest rate, which slows borrowing and helps to reduce inflation.

Brazil Broad Money Supply: M3: Quotas of Fixed Income Funds data was reported at 3,338,465.350 BRL mn in Jun 2018. This records an increase from the previous number of 3,331,842.832 BRL mn for May 2018. Brazil Broad Money Supply: M3: Quotas of Fixed Income Funds data is updated monthly, averaging 629,057.895 BRL mn from Jul 1994 (Median) to Jun 2018, with 288 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 3,340,435.474 BRL mn in Apr 2018 and a record low of 18,817.305 BRL mn in Jul 1994. Brazil Broad Money Supply: M3: Quotas of Fixed Income Funds data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by Central Bank of Brazil. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Brazil – Table BR.KAA018: Money Supply. Brazilian Central Bank has made changes in methodology of Financial System Credit Data in February of 2013 after 13 years following the same methodology. These changes are necessary face the expansion of credit, favored by the improvement of the indicators of employment and income, continuous and sharp reduction of the interest rates and by important institutional advances. It is essential the availability of new information, in particular, which allows more detailed monitoring of credit arrangements with targeted resources, especially real estate financing, whose dynamism has contributed to reducing the housing deficit in the country. The main change includes coverage of data on concessions, interest rates, terms and default rates that were extended to the segment of directed credit and also became necessary to further detailing the statistical framework, to enable identification of the terms most relevant as well as reduce the relative share of loans not classified - embedded in 'other receivables'. The Money Supply statistics were revised in August 2018, incorporating methodological updates to increase compliance with international standards and consistency with other sets of macroeconomic statistics. The revision consists the inclusion of cooperatives among the institutions that meke up the money issuing system, resulting in M1 expansion, and the exclusion of non-residents assets, impacting mainly on M4. Replacement series ID: 408100917

August 2024 marked a significant shift in the UK's monetary policy, as it saw the first reduction in the official bank base interest rate since August 2023. This change came after a period of consistent rate hikes that began in late 2021. In a bid to minimize the economic effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, the Bank of England cut the official bank base rate in March 2020 to a record low of *** percent. This historic low came just one week after the Bank of England cut rates from **** percent to **** percent in a bid to prevent mass job cuts in the United Kingdom. It remained at *** percent until December 2021 and was increased to one percent in May 2022 and to **** percent in October 2022. After that, the bank rate increased almost on a monthly basis, reaching **** percent in August 2023. It wasn't until August 2024 that the first rate decrease since the previous year occurred, signaling a potential shift in monetary policy. Why do central banks adjust interest rates? Central banks, including the Bank of England, adjust interest rates to manage economic stability and control inflation. Their strategies involve a delicate balance between two main approaches. When central banks raise interest rates, their goal is to cool down an overheated economy. Higher rates curb excessive spending and borrowing, which helps to prevent runaway inflation. This approach is typically used when the economy is growing too quickly or when inflation is rising above desired levels. Conversely, when central banks lower interest rates, they aim to encourage borrowing and investment. This strategy is employed to stimulate economic growth during periods of slowdown or recession. Lower rates make it cheaper for businesses and individuals to borrow money, which can lead to increased spending and investment. This dual approach allows central banks to maintain a balance between promoting growth and controlling inflation, ensuring long-term economic stability. Additionally, adjusting interest rates can influence currency values, impacting international trade and investment flows, further underscoring their critical role in a nation's economic health. Recent interest rate trends Between 2021 and 2024, most advanced and emerging economies experienced a period of regular interest rate hikes. This trend was driven by several factors, including persistent supply chain disruptions, high energy prices, and robust demand pressures. These elements combined to create significant inflationary trends, prompting central banks to raise rates in an effort to temper spending and borrowing. However, in 2024, a shift began to occur in global monetary policy. The European Central Bank (ECB) was among the first major central banks to reverse this trend by cutting interest rates. This move signaled a change in approach aimed at addressing growing economic slowdowns and supporting growth.

The determination of the money supply for a period of missing key statistics, registries, and a central bank-note-system which was still in development had been neglected for a long time. The author has used only sources difficult of access. His study represents a first attempt to give a comprehensive picture of monetary developments and their significance for the period of industrialization in Germany.

In the center of this investigation are the following topics: 1. The systematic processing of statistical data on money supply changes from 1835 to 1913 in the form of time series. 2. A description of the development of the particular money-types or types of money-surrogates, including the causes of their changes. 3. Analysis and discussion of interdependencies between money supply and course of the economy. 4. Changes in the total money supply and its relations to economic development.

Therefore the time-period under investigation was divided into four phases: - The early days of industrialization and 1850, - The period of economic recovery from 1850 to 1873, - The stagnation from 1873 to 1894, - The period of economic recovery from 1894 to 1913.

Datatables with time-series in the search- and downloadsystem HISTAT (Historical Statistics, www.histat.gesis.org):

A. changes in money supply in Germany in the era of industrialization (1835 to 1913) (Tables 1 to 8 of Sprenger, 1982)

A.1 The development of metal money supply in Germany (1835-1913) A.2 The development of banknote stocks (1835-1913) A.3 The development of the state paper money stock (1835-1913) A.4 The development of paper money supply (1835-1913) A.5 The composition of the paper money stock (1835-1913) A.6 The development of the book money supply (1835-1913) A.7 The development of the coin money supply (1835-1913) A.8 The composition of the coin money supply (1835-1913) A.9 development and composition of the money supply in Britain, France and Germany (1850-1913)

B. The development of the money supply in the era of industrialization (1835 to 1913) (Tables 9 to 11 of Sprenger, 1982)

B.1 The development of the money supply in various accruals (1835-1913) B.2 The composition of the money supply in term of a more comprehensive version (1835-1913) B.3 The development of the velocity of money (1850-1913)

C. Development of the money supply from 1918 to 1945

C.1 The development of the of coin money in billions of marks (1913-1918) C.2 Development of prices and dollar exchange rate (1913-1918) C.3a The development of coin money supply and the floating of national debt (1918-1923) C.3b The development of coin money supply and the floating of national debt (1918-1923) C.4 price-development and dollar exchange rate (1918-1923) C.5 development and composition of money supply (1924-1933) C.6 The development of money supply, of price level, of national income and national debt under the period of National Socialism (1933-1945) C.7 The development of the coin money supply (1928-1945) C.8 composition of the monetary base in Germany (1914-1922)

D. The development of the money supply in the Federal Republic of Germany

D.1 money supply and interest rates in the Federal Republic of Germany (1948-1998)

E. Additional time series

E.1 Additional time series (1835-1959) E.2 The composition of the cash stock - The Reichsbank (1876-1921) E.3 Average composition of the metallic money supply - the Reichsbank (1876-1921) E.4 giro transactions - the Reichsbank (1876-1924)

Timeseries are downloadable via the online system HISTAT (www.histat.gesis.org).

This analysis presents a rigorous exploration of financial data, incorporating a diverse range of statistical features. By providing a robust foundation, it facilitates advanced research and innovative modeling techniques within the field of finance.

Does S&P 500 beat inflation?

Financial data:

• Historical daily stock prices (open, high, low, close, volume)

• Fundamental data (e.g., market capitalization, price to earnings P/E ratio, dividend yield, earnings per share EPS, price to earnings growth, debt-to-equity ratio, price-to-book ratio, current ratio, free cash flow, projected earnings growth, return on equity, dividend payout ratio, price to sales ratio, credit rating)

• Technical indicators (e.g., moving averages, RSI, MACD, average directional index, aroon oscillator, stochastic oscillator, on-balance volume, accumulation/distribution A/D line, parabolic SAR indicator, bollinger bands indicators, fibonacci, williams percent range, commodity channel index)

Machine learning features:

• Feature engineering based on financial data and technical indicators

• Sentiment analysis data from social media and news articles

• Macroeconomic data (e.g., GDP, unemployment rate, interest rates, consumer spending, building permits, consumer confidence, inflation, producer price index, money supply, home sales, retail sales, bond yields)

Potential Applications:

• Stock price prediction

• Portfolio optimization

• Algorithmic trading

• Market sentiment analysis

• Risk management

Use Cases:

• Researchers investigating the effectiveness of machine learning in stock market prediction

• Analysts developing quantitative trading Buy/Sell strategies

• Individuals interested in building their own stock market prediction models

• Students learning about machine learning and financial applications

Additional Notes:

• The dataset may include different levels of granularity (e.g., daily, hourly)

• Data cleaning and preprocessing are essential before model training

• Regular updates are recommended to maintain the accuracy and relevance of the data