London was the most expensive city to buy an apartment in the United Kingdom, with an average value of ****** euros per square meter in the first quarter of 2025. The price of an apartment in Leeds was significantly lower at approximately ***** euros per square meter.

This repository is the fourth updated version of the attribute-linked residential property price dataset in the UK Data Service ReShare (854240) (https://reshare.ukdataservice.ac.uk/854240/). This dataset contains individual property transactions and associated variables from both Land Registry Price Paid Dataset (LR PPD) and the Department for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities (DLUHC, formerly MHCLG) Domestic Energy Performance Certificate (EPC) data. It is a linked dataset produced by address matching between LR PPD data (1/1/1995–31/10/2024) and Domestic EPC data (up to 31/10/2024). It is the full version of the 2024 update of the dataset published in the Greater London Authority (GLA) London Datastore (https://data.london.gov.uk/dataset/house-price-per-square-metre-in-england-and-wales).

The linked dataset (tranall_link_26122024) provided here is the initial, uncleaned version, intended to offer maximum flexibility for users to clean the data according to their research purposes. This linked dataset records over 22 million transactions with 106 variables across England and Wales, covering the period from 01/01/1995 to 31/10/2024. We have provided technical validation and data cleaning code in UKDA ReShare 854240 to help users evaluate the data structure and perform their own cleaning. There is no single way to clean this raw linked dataset, so we encourage users to develop their own cleaning process based on their research needs. This repository also includes the original Land Registry Price Paid Data (LR PPD) and Domestic EPCs used to create the linked dataset (house price per square metre dataset). Unlike previous versions, this updated dataset no longer includes the id variable (created by the authors). Instead, for the first time, both the Domestic EPCs and the linked dataset retain the LMK_KEY variable, which originates from the Domestic EPCs dataset. This change was made because LMK_KEY serves as a unique identifier, with no duplicate records since 2024. Five address-related variables from the original Domestic EPCs dataset(ADDRESS1, ADDRESS2, ADDRESS3, POSTCODE, and ADDRESS) have been removed from the EPC data in this repository. The priceper and classt variables were created by the authors and can be found in the linked dataset (tranall_link_26122024.zip). A detailed explanation of these fields is available on the GLA London Datastore (https://data.london.gov.uk/dataset/house-price-per-square-metre-in-england-and-wales). The lad23cd field originates from the NSPL dataset. Since November 2021, DLUHC has published Domestic EPCs with the Unique Property Reference Number (UPRN). As a result, both the EPC and the full linked dataset in this repository include UPRN information from the Domestic EPCs

Geneva stands out as Europe's most expensive city for apartment purchases in early 2025, with prices reaching a staggering 15,720 euros per square meter. This Swiss city's real estate market dwarfs even high-cost locations like Zurich and London, highlighting the extreme disparities in housing affordability across the continent. The stark contrast between Geneva and more affordable cities like Nantes, France, where the price was 3,700 euros per square meter, underscores the complex factors influencing urban property markets in Europe. Rental market dynamics and affordability challenges While purchase prices vary widely, rental markets across Europe also show significant differences. London maintained its position as the continent's priciest city for apartment rentals in 2023, with the average monthly costs for a rental apartment amounting to 36.1 euros per square meter. This figure is double the rent in Lisbon, Portugal or Madrid, Spain, and substantially higher than in other major capitals like Paris and Berlin. The disparity in rental costs reflects broader economic trends, housing policies, and the intricate balance of supply and demand in urban centers. Economic factors influencing housing costs The European housing market is influenced by various economic factors, including inflation and energy costs. As of April 2025, the European Union's inflation rate stood at 2.4 percent, with significant variations among member states. Romania experienced the highest inflation at 4.9 percent, while France and Cyprus maintained lower rates. These economic pressures, coupled with rising energy costs, contribute to the overall cost of living and housing affordability across Europe. The volatility in electricity prices, particularly in countries like Italy where rates are projected to reach 153.83 euros per megawatt hour by February 2025, further impacts housing-related expenses for both homeowners and renters.

This house price per square metre dataset is created through complex address-based matching between the Land Registry’s Price Paid Data (LR-PPD) and property size information from the Domestic Energy Performance Certificates (EPC) data published by the Department for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities (DLUHC, formerly MHCLG). Details of the data linkage are published in the UCL Open: Environment along with the related linkage code via the UK Data Service ReShare repository.

During this data linkage process, the transactions assigned as category B (Additional Price Paid entry) and other property types are removed. Here we publish our latest limited attribute version of the uncorrected house price per square metre dataset in England and Wales with the LR-PPD data (1/1/1995-26/2/2021) and Domestic EPCs data (the sixth version, up to 20/9/2020) downloaded on 1/4/2021 for non-commercial purpose. This uncorrected version of house price per square metre dataset records over 18 million transactions with 16 variables in England and Wales since 1995. Unlike in our published article, in this uncorrected version we have not removed transactions with any improbable price per square metre values - i.e. where either the transaction price or total floor area values are null, 0 or too low to be realistic. This uncorrected version of the data will offer the most flexibility for researchers.

We offer technical validation and data cleaning code via the UKDA ReShare repository to help users evaluate the representation of the linked data for a given time period. The data cleaning code shows our methods for cleaning up unlikely floor size records before using this data in analysis. Users can create their own rules and undertake this clean-up process based on their own experience and research aims.

This limited attribute version is published by local authority (2021 version). Details of the 16 variables are described in the explanation file. The National Statistics Postcode Lookup NSPL (May 2021 version) is used to assign the local authority unit for your production of area-based statistics. Users can match historical changes in LA boundaries by choosing appropriate aggregations using, for instance ONSPD, and the postcode variable in our dataset.

An extended version of this dataset containing additional variables is available from UK Data Service Reshare service. Users can directly access this full version dataset (tranall_link_01042021.zip) via the following link: https://reshare.ukdataservice.ac.uk/855033/ . Accompanying LR-PPD and EPC data are also supplied through the ReShare service. Users who would like to attach their own additional variables from the LR-PPD data are advised to use the transactionid variable to link to the LR-PPD (LRPPD_01042021.zip). Users who would like to attach additional variables from the EPC data are advised to use the id variable to link to the sixth version Domestic EPCs (epc6_id.zip).

The 2024 update

The 2024 updated version of the house price per square metre dataset extends the data coverage to the end of 2024 ( hpm_la_2024.zip ). This new version is the result of linking LR-PPD data (01/01/1995–31/10/2024) and Domestic EPCs data (up to 31/10/2024), downloaded on 26/12/2024 for non-commercial purposes. It records over 22 million transactions in England and Wales since 1995.

Unlike the previous versions, this updated removes the id variable (created by the authors) and adds the lmk_key variable (originally from the Domestic EPCs dataset). This change was made because the lmk_key serves as a unique identifier with no duplicate records since 2024.

The match rate of the linked data varies over time; therefore, we recommend users carefully choose the time coverage and validate the data coverage using the match rate. Please note that publicly available Domestic EPCs data starts in 2008, resulting in an extremely low match rate for the period between 1995 and 2008.

The National Statistics Postcode Lookup (November 2024 version) is used to assign local authorities (2023 version)

As of 2025, Zurich, Geneva, and London had some of the highest construction costs in Europe, with a price of ***** and ******U.S. dollars per square meter, respectively. Dublin was the third city at ***** U.S. dollars per square meter, closely followed by Munich and Dublin. When it comes to the construction cost of education buildings in the UK, Glasgow was more expensive than London. However, this is an exception, as generally, London is the most expensive city to build in the UK.

This statistic illustrates the average prices of ultra prime property available on the market in selected locations in Europe as of January 2017. Luxurious properties in Mykonos were priced at an average of *** euros per square foot in 2017, while the price of French Riviera real estate reached approximately **** thousand euros per square foot. The priciest prime real estate was found on the London market, Mayfair district, where one might have paid **** thousand euros per square foot of the luxury residence.

This dataset contains various characteristics and price information about houses in London. Consisting of 1000 entries, it reflects many aspects of each house, from location to interior design. In addition to physical features such as the address, neighborhood, number of rooms, and square footage, it also includes more specific details like the age of the building, garage availability, and balcony presence. Furthermore, the price of each house provides valuable insights into its market value.

Columns;

Address: The address of the house.

Neighborhood: The neighborhood or district where the house is located.

Bedrooms: The number of bedrooms in the house.

Bathrooms: The number of bathrooms in the house.

Square Meters: The total size of the house in square meters.

Building Age: The age of the building, indicating how long ago it was constructed.

Garden: Indicates whether the house has a garden ("Yes" or "No").

Garage: Indicates whether the house has a garage ("Yes" or "No").

Floors: The total number of floors in the house.

Property Type: The type of property, such as "Apartment" or "House."

Heating Type: The type of heating system used in the house (e.g., "Central Heating," "Gas").

Balcony: Indicates whether the house has a balcony ("Yes" or "No").

Interior Style: The interior design style of the house (e.g., "Modern," "Contemporary").

View: The type of view from the house (e.g., "City View," "Sea View").

Materials: The materials used in the construction of the house (e.g., "Brick," "Wood").

Building Status: The current condition of the building (e.g., "New," "Renovated," "Old").

Price (£): The sale price of the house, in British pounds (£).

Land Registry Price Paid Data (PPD) have been published as open data since 2013. These data have been transformative for house price variation research in the UK as they are a comprehensive record of residential transactions at address level and cover the whole of England and Wales over a period dating back to 1995. Despite the utility of these data, a lack of attribute information relating to the properties, such as total floor area information, is identified as one of the major shortcomings of the PPD data. This means that the impacts of stock mix on broader price patterns cannot be fully accounted for. This research outlines one approach which addresses this deficiency by combining transaction information from the official open Land Registry Price Paid Data (PPD) with property size information form the official open Domestic Energy Performance Certificates (EPCs). A four-stage data linkage is created to generate a new linked dataset, representing 79% of the full market sales in the Land Registry PPD. This new linked dataset details 5,732,838 transactions in England and Wales between 2011 and 2019, along with each property's total floor area and the number of habitable rooms. Codes for other commonly used spatial units from Output Area to Local Authority are also included in the dataset. This offers greater flexibility for the exploration of house price variation in England and Wales at different spatial scales. The data collection includes the scripts used for linkage, as well as the resulting dataset.

Current residential house price variation research in the UK is limited by lack of an open and comprehensive house price database that contains both transaction price alongside dwelling attributes such as size. This research outlines one approach which addresses this deficiency in England and Wales through combining transaction information from the official open Land Registry Price Paid Data (PPD) and property size information form the official open Domestic Energy Performance Certificates (EPCs). A four-stage data linkage is created to generate a new linked data, representing 79% of the full market sales in Land Registry PPD. This new linked dataset offers greater flexibility for the exploration of house price (house price per square metre) variation in England and Wales at different spatial scales over postcode unit between 2011 and 2019.

The cost of rent for office space in London is the highest in Europe. In the fourth quarter of 2023, the West End had average rents per square foot of *** British pounds. The average annual rent in London for prime office space was substantially higher than in any other European market. Prime yields For commercial real estate investors, prime yields in London averaged **** percent in 2023. As compared to the rest of the United Kingdom, yields for prime office space in London were notably lower. Commercial investments Office real estate, which comes under the broader term of commercial real estate, traditionally accounts for the lion's share of commercial real estate investments. In recent years, however, this share has been gradually declining. Despite this trend, the UK is one of the leading office real estate investment markets in Europe.

There, the average construction cost of a large shopping center in London was around ***** British pounds in 2024. The most expensive retail spaces in the United Kingdom (UK) were found in London. However, the retail construction costs in Manchester were not far behind. Our report on construction costs in the UK provides deeper insight into the expenses that contractors need to face during their projects in London and the rest of the country. Largest shopping centers in the UK In 2023, Middlebrook Retail & Leisure Park and Castlepoint Shopping Centre were the largest retail parks in the UK. These facilities had a gross internal area of ******* square feet. In comparison, the size of Westfield shopping malls in London and Stratford City were less than half that size. The hottest streets The Bond and Oxford Streets, both located in London were among the high streets in the UK with the lowest retail yields, which were under ***** percent as of 2024. The prime yields of high street retail in other European countries were higher than in the UK.

In 2024, ****** was still the most expensive UK city for office construction. This was true at least for the cities included in the list, and it applies to prestige and A-Grade offices. Both A-Grade and prestige offices in London were more expensive than any type of office construction in Birmingham, Manchester, Glasgow, or Leeds. After London, Cambridge and Oxford are also some of the other UK cities with the highest house prices in 2023. Office rents in London Not only did London prove to have high building costs, rents for prime offices were equally high, with the West End core as the most expensive districts in the city. The area to the North of Buckingham Palace is known for its exclusive townhouses largely owned by the foreign elite and upscale hotels and restaurants. Stratford and the rest of the Docklands were the cheapest districts in London. Office investments in the UK In the last quarter of 2023, the value of office investments in London increased slightly in comparison to previous quarters. Investments in the City and Southbank, however, dropped in value. The volume of investment in commercial real estate in the UK fluctuated a lot in the past months, with some years showing high volumes of investment in office real estate, and other months where those values fell rapidly.

Community Infrastructure Levy (“CIL”) is a standard charge collected from developers on a rate per square metre basis after their planning permissions have been implemented and the funds raised are spent on infrastructure to support the development of an area. The charging authority sets out its levy rates in a charging schedule (see section 211(1) of the Planning Act 2008). The London Borough of Barnet was one of the first London authorities to adopt and implement CIL in May 2013. See Cabinet report Community Infrastructure Levy.pdf The London Borough of Barnet adopted its Revised Community Infrastructure Levy charging schedule on 1 March 2022. See Cabinet report (Public Pack)Urgent Late Item - CIL Charging Schedule / Supplement to Head of Governance Report Agenda Supplement for Council, 01/03/2022 19:00

The cost of 'small shed' and 'big shed' prime industrial warehouse space per square foot in London, United Kingdom (UK) were the highest in Park Royal and Canning Town, where rents amounted to ** British pound per square foot as of January 2021. The price per square foot of smaller industrial warehousing was more expensive than that of larger warehousing. Other factors that could affect pricing included proximity to major road systems and key population areas, as well as the price of developing land and staff costs.

In the second quarter of 2025, London (West End) was the market with the most expensive prime office space worldwide. The net effective cost for a prime office in London cost close to ****** U.S. dollars annually. In second and third markets in the ranking, Hong Kong and Midtown New York, prices also exceeded *** U.S. dollars per square foot, with Hong Kong at ****** U.S. dollars and New York Midtown at ****** U.S. dollars. The global office real estate sector was severely affected by the coronavirus pandemic and the political and economic uncertainty that followed. With many companies placing expansion plans on hold and transitioning to hybrid working models, vacancies across many markets spiked and leasing activity slowed down.

In the first quarter of 2025, London West End - Bond Street was the most expensive location for prime high street rents in the UK, with prices reaching 2,500 British pounds per square foot. The West End was ranked ahead of London City, which came in third. In Manchester, the annual costs of rental per square foot of prime retail real estate amounted to 235 British pounds. Retail warehouses Retail warehouses typically range from 50,000 to hundreds of thousands of square feet. They are used for keeping and distributing inventory. Retail warehouses include loading docks, truck doors and large parking lots; also, they may contain a limited amount of office space. Prime retail warehouse properties belong to the wider category of industrial property, along with other real estate types, such as distribution buildings, showroom facilities, manufacturing buildings, cold storage facilities, telecom or data hosting centers, "flex" buildings denoting more than one industrial or commercial facility housed in the same building, and finally R&D buildings. Prime yields of high street retail across Europe Retail real estate prime yields in Europe were the lowest in Zurich, Switzerland, and the highest in Bucharest, Romania in 2025. As could be expected, larger cities in Europe tended to produce lower yields, due to the lower risk associated with these markets. Locations with lower yields tend to have steady occupancy rates and rental growth.

The Property Characteristics dataset provides detailed information on residential properties, enabling in-depth analysis of energy performance, building attributes, and their relationship with household energy use. Each record corresponds to a single household and includes a unique anonymised identifier (user_id), allowing seamless integration with half-hourly consumption dataset for comprehensive energy analysis.

Key attributes include:

1. Region: Geographical location of the property (e.g., London, Wales, North East).
2. Postcode: Area-level location for spatial analysis.
3. Total floor area: Floor area of the property in square metres, providing a measure of building size.
4. Current energy rating: Energy Performance Certificate (EPC) rating, ranging from A (most efficient) to G (least efficient).
5. Construction age band: Age band of the building (e.g., 1930–1949, 2007 onwards), reflecting building design standards and potential efficiency characteristics.

This dataset is ideal for: - Energy efficiency analysis: Understanding building performance and potential for energy savings. - Property research: Analysing correlations between building characteristics, size, and energy performance. - Demand modelling: Linking property attributes with household consumption data to improve energy demand forecasting. - Policy evaluation: Assessing the impact of building age and EPC rating on energy efficiency programs and retrofits.

With anonymised identifiers and rich property attributes, this dataset provides a robust foundation for both commercial and research applications. It supports longitudinal studies, energy modelling, and the creation of value-added products, while maintaining household privacy and confidentiality.

The United Kingdom (UK) is the most expensive European country for prime industrial rent. The monthly rent for industrial space in London Heathrow in the second quarter of 2025 cost **** euros per square meter. Switzerland, Norway, and Ireland, were the other European countries where the average annual cost of industrial prime rents in the capital city exceeded one ***euros per square meter.

The price of prime office space in London differs significantly based on location. More central areas, including the West End, Marylebone and Knightsbridge, tend to have prime rents more than double the cost of areas on the outskirts. London office rents - most expensive in Europe When placing London alongside other major cities in Europe, the West End area of London had annual prime rents over 800 euros per year higher than Paris. In the United Kingdom (UK), average rental costs in the capital fair outweigh those of other areas. Outside of London, the major cities saw prime office rents ranging between 26 British pounds per square foot and 39 British pounds per square foot. Prime Yields Prime yields assess the return on investment expected for commercial real estate. In 2023, prime yields ifor office real estate stood between 3.75 and 7.5 percent. During the same year, office prime yields in several other areas in Europe saw far greater returns on investment.

This statistic displays the cost of 'small shed' and 'big shed' secondary industrial warehouse space per square foot in London, United Kingdom (UK) in ********* by area. The price per square foot of smaller industrial warehousing was more expensive than that of larger warehousing, with the exception of Barking and Dagenham. Other factors that could affect pricing included proximity to major road systems and key population areas, as well as the price of developing land and staff costs. Prices for secondary small shed real estate in the London area were highest in Acton and Park Royal where rents amounted to ** British pound per square foot.

In 2024, the most expensive residential rental market in Europe was Luxembourg with rental costs of approximately *****euros per square meter.Paris and Dublin followed with rental costs of ***and *****euros per square meter. Rents increased across most markets - a trend that could also be observed in the housing market. How much does an apartment cost in different European cities? Renting a furnished studio apartment in some of the leading cities in Europe can cost anywhere between *** euros monthly (Budapest) and ***** euros (Amsterdam) per month. For a furnished one-bedroom apartment in Paris, France, one may be expected to pay on average ***** euros monthly. Which countries have the most affordable housing? The house price to rent ratio is an indicator of the affordability of owning housing over renting across European countries and is calculated as the nominal house prices divided by a rent price index. The higher the ratio, the more the gap between house prices and rental rates has widened since 2015 when the index base was 100. As of the first quarter of 2025, Finland, Italy, and Romania had the lowest house price to rent ratio, meaning that buying a house was most affordable there compared to renting.