The U.S. federal funds effective rate underwent a dramatic reduction in early 2020 in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. The rate plummeted from 1.58 percent in February 2020 to 0.65 percent in March, and further decreased to 0.05 percent in April. This sharp reduction, accompanied by the Federal Reserve's quantitative easing program, was implemented to stabilize the economy during the global health crisis. After maintaining historically low rates for nearly two years, the Federal Reserve began a series of rate hikes in early 2022, with the rate moving from 0.33 percent in April 2022 to 5.33 percent in August 2023. The rate remained unchanged for over a year, before the Federal Reserve initiated its first rate cut in nearly three years in September 2024, bringing the rate to 5.13 percent. By December 2024, the rate was cut to 4.48 percent, signaling a shift in monetary policy in the second half of 2024. In January 2025, the Federal Reserve implemented another cut, setting the rate at 4.33 percent, which remained unchanged throughout the following months. What is the federal funds effective rate? The U.S. federal funds effective rate determines the interest rate paid by depository institutions, such as banks and credit unions, that lend reserve balances to other depository institutions overnight. Changing the effective rate in times of crisis is a common way to stimulate the economy, as it has a significant impact on the whole economy, such as economic growth, employment, and inflation. Central bank policy rates The adjustment of interest rates in response to the COVID-19 pandemic was a coordinated global effort. In early 2020, central banks worldwide implemented aggressive monetary easing policies to combat the economic crisis. The U.S. Federal Reserve's dramatic reduction of its federal funds rate - from 1.58 percent in February 2020 to 0.05 percent by April - mirrored similar actions taken by central banks globally. While these low rates remained in place throughout 2021, mounting inflationary pressures led to a synchronized tightening cycle beginning in 2022, with central banks pushing rates to multi-year highs. By mid-2024, as inflation moderated across major economies, central banks began implementing their first rate cuts in several years, with the U.S. Federal Reserve, Bank of England, and European Central Bank all easing monetary policy.

The Federal Reserve's balance sheet has undergone significant changes since 2007, reflecting its response to major economic crises. From a modest *** trillion U.S. dollars at the end of 2007, it ballooned to approximately **** trillion U.S. dollars by June 2025. This dramatic expansion, particularly during the 2008 financial crisis and the COVID-19 pandemic - both of which resulted in negative annual GDP growth in the U.S. - showcases the Fed's crucial role in stabilizing the economy through expansionary monetary policies. Impact on inflation and interest rates The Fed's expansionary measures, while aimed at stimulating economic growth, have had notable effects on inflation and interest rates. Following the quantitative easing in 2020, inflation in the United States reached ***** percent in 2022, the highest since 1991. However, by *************, inflation had declined to *** percent. Concurrently, the Federal Reserve implemented a series of interest rate hikes, with the rate peaking at **** percent in ***********, before the first rate cut since ************** occurred in **************. Financial implications for the Federal Reserve The expansion of the Fed's balance sheet and subsequent interest rate hikes have had significant financial implications. In 2023, the Fed reported a negative net income of ***** billion U.S. dollars, a stark contrast to the ***** billion U.S. dollars profit in 2022. This unprecedented shift was primarily due to rapidly rising interest rates, which caused the Fed's interest expenses to soar to over *** billion U.S. dollars in 2023. Despite this, the Fed's net interest income on securities acquired through open market operations reached a record high of ****** billion U.S. dollars in the same year.

High-frequency changes in interest rates around FOMC announcements are a standard method of measuring monetary policy shocks. However, some recent studies have documented puzzling effects of these shocks on private-sector forecasts of GDP, unemployment, or inflation that are opposite in sign to what standard macroeconomic models would predict. This evidence has been viewed as supportive of a "Fed information effect" channel of monetary policy, whereby an FOMC tightening (easing) communicates that the economy is stronger (weaker) than the public had expected. We show that these empirical results are also consistent with a "Fed response to news" channel, in which incoming, publicly available economic news causes both the Fed to change monetary policy and the private sector to revise its forecasts. We provide substantial new evidence that distinguishes between these two channels and strongly favors the latter; for example, (i) regressions that include the previously omitted public economic news, (ii) a new survey that we conduct of Blue Chip forecasters, and (iii) high-frequency financial market responses to FOMC announcements all suggest that the Fed and private sector are simply responding to the same public news, with relatively little role for a "Fed information effect".

The Federal Reserve's balance sheet ballooned following its announcement to carry out quantitative easing to increase the liquidity of U.S. banks in early 2020. The balance sheet continued to grow in the following period as well, with a downward trend in 2023. As of February 29, 2024, the Fed's balance sheet amounted to roughly 7.6 trillion U.S. dollars. The most drastic increase in the observed period took place in the first half of 2020. This measure was taken to increase the money supply and stimulate economic growth in the wake of the damage caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. The Federal Reserve was not the only institution that implemented an expansionary monetary policy in response to the pandemic. For instance, the European Central Bank expanded its money supply in March 2020 and kept doing so over the following months. How do central banks increase the amount of money in circulation? Central banks can increase the money circulating in the economy in many ways. For instance, they can decrease banks’ reserve requirements to stimulate lending or decrease the interest rates to reduce the cost of borrowing for commercial banks. Alternatively, central banks can engage in open market operations (OMO) and buy securities such as government bonds from commercial banks or institutions. By conducting open market operations, the Federal Reserve expanded its balance sheet by seven trillion U.S. dollars between 2007 and 2023. All these measures aim to increase bank loans to entrepreneurs and consumers in order to stimulate employment and economic growth. Impact of COVID-19 on the U.S. economy The COVID-19 pandemic had a tremendous impact on national economies worldwide, and the United States was no exception. During the early months of the crisis, many lost their jobs, mostly those in lower-income categories. As a consequence, many Americans found it difficult to pay their rent and cover basic household expenses. Furthermore, in April 2022, most small business owners claimed that the pandemic had a large or moderate negative effect on their businesses. Overall, the gross domestic product (GDP) of the United States decreased by roughly 2.2 percent in 2020. In the following years, however, it increased notably, surpassing 25 trillion U.S. dollars in 2022.

The financial crisis of 2007-09 is widely viewed as the worst financial disruption since the Great Depression of 1929-1933. However, the accompanying economic recession was mild compared with the Great Depression, though severe by postwar standards.

The aim of this study is to determine whether the stock indices of some developed and developing countries react similarly to the price movements in the Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA). In this study, the impact of DJIA on other indices during the 2008 global financial crisis, was explored by using the Vector Error Correction Model. The data used was analyzed in two periods: (1) the expansionary period; and (2) the contractionary period of the FED's policies. The results of the analysis indicate that the developed and emerging stock markets react differently to the DJIA. The results include important findings for decisions by financial investors and policy makers.

Graph and download economic data for 13) To the Extent That the Price or Nonprice Terms Applied to Trading REITs Have Tightened or Eased Over the Past Three Months (as Reflected in Your Responses to Questions 11 and 12), What Are the Most Important Reasons for the Change?| B. Possible Reasons for Easing | 7. More-Aggressive Competition from Other Institutions. | Answer Type: 3rd Most Important (CTQ13B73MINR) from Q1 2012 to Q2 2025 about ease, REIT, change, 3-month, trade, price, and USA.

The U.S. federal funds rate peaked in 2023 at its highest level since the 2007-08 financial crisis, reaching 5.33 percent by December 2023. A significant shift in monetary policy occurred in the second half of 2024, with the Federal Reserve implementing regular rate cuts. By December 2024, the rate had declined to 4.48 percent. What is a central bank rate? The federal funds rate determines the cost of overnight borrowing between banks, allowing them to maintain necessary cash reserves and ensure financial system liquidity. When this rate rises, banks become more inclined to hold rather than lend money, reducing the money supply. While this decreased lending slows economic activity, it helps control inflation by limiting the circulation of money in the economy. Historic perspective The federal funds rate historically follows cyclical patterns, falling during recessions and gradually rising during economic recoveries. Some central banks, notably the European Central Bank, went beyond traditional monetary policy by implementing both aggressive asset purchases and negative interest rates.

Graph and download economic data for 13) To the Extent That the Price or Nonprice Terms Applied to Trading REITs Have Tightened or Eased Over the Past Three Months (as Reflected in Your Responses to Questions 11 and 12), What Are the Most Important Reasons for the Change?| B. Possible Reasons for Easing | 1. Improvement in Current or Expected Financial Strength of Counterparties. | Answer Type: 2nd Most Important (CTQ13B12MINR) from Q1 2012 to Q2 2025 about ease, REIT, change, projection, 3-month, trade, financial, price, and USA.

Graph and download economic data for 6) To the Extent That the Price or Nonprice Terms Applied to Hedge Funds Have Tightened or Eased Over the Past Three Months (as Reflected in Your Responses to Questions 4 and 5), What Are the Most Important Reasons for the Change?| B. Possible Reasons for Easing | 7. More-Aggressive Competition from Other Institutions. | Answer Type: 2nd Most Important (CTQ06B72MINR) from Q1 2012 to Q2 2025 about Hedge Fund, ease, change, 3-month, price, and USA.

Graph and download economic data for 37) To the Extent That the Price or Nonprice Terms Applied to Nonfinancial Corporations Have Tightened or Eased Over the Past Three Months (as Reflected in Your Responses to Questions 35 and 36), What Are the Most Important Reasons for the Change?| B. Possible Reasons for Easing | 1. Improvement in Current or Expected Financial Strength of Counterparties. | Answer Type: 2nd Most Important (CTQ37B12MINR) from Q1 2012 to Q2 2025 about ease, change, projection, 3-month, nonfinancial, financial, corporate, price, and USA.

Graph and download economic data for 31) To the Extent That the Price or Nonprice Terms Applied to Separately Managed Accounts Established with Investment Advisers Have Tightened or Eased Over the Past Three Months (as Reflected in Your Responses to Questions 29 and 30), What Are the Most Important Reasons for the Change?| A. Possible Reasons for Tightening | 3. Adoption of More-Stringent Market Conventions (That Is, Collateral Terms and Agreements, ISDA Protocols). | Answer Type: First In Importance (CTQ31A3MINR) from Q1 2012 to Q2 2025 about ease, collateral, marketable, separations, change, accounts, management, 3-month, investment, price, and USA.

Graph and download economic data for 25) To the Extent That the Price or Nonprice Terms Applied to Insurance Companies Have Tightened or Eased Over the Past Three Months (as Reflected in Your Responses to Questions 23 and 24), What Are the Most Important Reasons for the Change?| B. Possible Reasons for Easing | 7. More-Aggressive Competition from Other Institutions. | Answer Type: First In Importance (CTQ25B7MINR) from Q1 2012 to Q2 2025 about ease, change, companies, insurance, 3-month, price, and USA.

Graph and download economic data for 13) To the Extent That the Price or Nonprice Terms Applied to Trading REITs Have Tightened or Eased Over the Past Three Months (as Reflected in Your Responses to Questions 11 and 12), What Are the Most Important Reasons for the Change?| A. Possible Reasons for Tightening | 3. Adoption of More-Stringent Market Conventions (That Is, Collateral Terms and Agreements, ISDA Protocols). | Answer Type: First In Importance (CTQ13A3MINR) from Q1 2012 to Q2 2025 about ease, collateral, conventional, REIT, marketable, change, 3-month, trade, price, and USA.

Graph and download economic data for 31) To the Extent That the Price or Nonprice Terms Applied to Separately Managed Accounts Established with Investment Advisers Have Tightened or Eased Over the Past Three Months (as Reflected in Your Responses to Questions 29 and 30), What Are the Most Important Reasons for the Change?| A. Possible Reasons for Tightening | 1. Deterioration in Current or Expected Financial Strength of Counterparties. | Answer Type: 3rd Most Important (CTQ31A13MINR) from Q1 2012 to Q2 2025 about ease, separations, change, accounts, management, projection, 3-month, investment, financial, price, and USA.

Graph and download economic data for 6) To the Extent That the Price or Nonprice Terms Applied to Hedge Funds Have Tightened or Eased Over the Past Three Months (as Reflected in Your Responses to Questions 4 and 5), What Are the Most Important Reasons for the Change?| A. Possible Reasons for Tightening | 1. Deterioration in Current or Expected Financial Strength of Counterparties. | Answer Type: 2nd Most Important (CTQ06A12MINR) from Q1 2012 to Q2 2025 about Hedge Fund, ease, change, projection, 3-month, financial, price, and USA.

Graph and download economic data for 13) To the Extent That the Price or Nonprice Terms Applied to Trading REITs Have Tightened or Eased Over the Past Three Months (as Reflected in Your Responses to Questions 11 and 12), What Are the Most Important Reasons for the Change?| A. Possible Reasons for Tightening | 1. Deterioration in Current or Expected Financial Strength of Counterparties. | Answer Type: 3rd Most Important (CTQ13A13MINR) from Q1 2012 to Q2 2025 about ease, REIT, change, projection, 3-month, trade, financial, price, and USA.

Graph and download economic data for Net Percentage of Domestic Banks Reporting Increased Willingness to Make Consumer Installment Loans, Weighted to Differentiate "Much More Willing" and "Much Less Willing" Responses (DISCONTINUED) (SUBLPDCLIWXWFRNQ) from Q3 1966 to Q3 2017 about installment, domestic, Net, percent, loans, consumer, banks, depository institutions, and USA.

Graph and download economic data for 31) To the Extent That the Price or Nonprice Terms Applied to Separately Managed Accounts Established with Investment Advisers Have Tightened or Eased Over the Past Three Months (as Reflected in Your Responses to Questions 29 and 30), What Are the Most Important Reasons for the Change?| B. Possible Reasons for Easing | 7. More-Aggressive Competition from Other Institutions. | Answer Type: 2nd Most Important (CTQ31B72MINR) from Q1 2012 to Q2 2025 about ease, separations, change, accounts, management, 3-month, investment, price, and USA.

Graph and download economic data for 13) To the Extent That the Price or Nonprice Terms Applied to Trading REITs Have Tightened or Eased Over the Past Three Months (as Reflected in Your Responses to Questions 11 and 12), What Are the Most Important Reasons for the Change?| B. Possible Reasons for Easing | 6. Improvement in General Market Liquidity and Functioning. | Answer Type: First In Importance (CTQ13B6MINR) from Q1 2012 to Q2 2025 about ease, REIT, marketable, general, change, liquidity, 3-month, trade, price, and USA.