The United States has an average elevation of roughly 2,500 feet (763m) above sea level, however there is a stark contrast in elevations across the country. Highest states Colorado is the highest state in the United States, with an average elevation of 6,800 feet (2,074m) above sea level. The 10 states with the highest average elevation are all in the western region of the country, as this is, by far, the most mountainous region in the country. The largest mountain ranges in the contiguous western states are the Rocky Mountains, Sierra Nevada, and Cascade Range, while the Appalachian Mountains is the longest range in the east - however, the highest point in the U.S. is Denali (Mount McKinley), found in Alaska. Lowest states At just 60 feet above sea level, Delaware is the state with the lowest elevation. Delaware is the second smallest state, behind Rhode Island, and is located on the east coast. Larger states with relatively low elevations are found in the southern region of the country - both Florida and Louisiana have an average elevation of just 100 feet (31m) above sea level, and large sections of these states are extremely vulnerable to flooding and rising sea levels, as well as intermittent tropical storms.

This statistic shows a ranking of the estimated average elevation of the land area in 2020 in Latin America, differentiated by country.The shown data are an excerpt of Statista's Key Market Indicators (KMI). The KMI are a collection of primary and secondary indicators on the macro-economic, demographic and technological environment in more than 150 countries and regions worldwide. All input data are sourced from international institutions, national statistical offices, and trade associations. All data has been are processed to generate comparable datasets (see supplementary notes under details for more information).

EDWin (Enriched Data of Wind Farms) is a dataset developed to provide information about global wind farms. The dataset is based on OpenStreetMap (OSM) data and has been enriched with additional variables obtained from various databases. The dataset includes two separate data sets, one for global turbines and one for wind farms. As of September 2022, this dataset contains the most recent information available.

The datasets have the following structures:

Wind Turbine data

The data for wind turbines includes 359,947 entries and 12 columns.

    Variable Name
    Description




    id
    Key value of the data point


    lon
    Longitude of the location


    lat
    Latitude of the location


    country
    Country where the turbine is located


    continent
    Continent where the turbine is located


    land cover
    The type of land on which the turbine is located


    landform
    The physical features of the land on which the turbine is located


    elevation
    The altitude of the turbine


    turbine spacing
    The distance between turbines in the wind farm


    WFid
    Wind Farm ID


    number of turbines
    The number of turbines in the wind farm


    shape
    The rough shape of the wind farm

Wind Farm data

The data for wind farms includes 20,608 entries and 11 columns.

    Variable Name
    Description




    WFid
    Wind Farm ID


    lon
    Longitude of the location (center of the wind farm)


    lat
    Latitude of the location (center of the wind farm)


    country
    Country where the wind farm is located


    continent
    Continent where the wind farm is located


    land cover
    The modal value of the land cover for the turbines in the wind farm


    landform
    The average value of the landform for the turbines in the wind farm


    elevation
    The average elevation of the turbines in the wind farm


    turbine spacing
    The average turbine spacing for the turbines in the wind farm


    number of turbines
    The number of turbines in the wind farm


    shape
    The rough shape of the wind farm

Note that the data for "Country", "Continent", "Land Cover", "Landform", "Elevation" and "Turbine spacing" were collected turbine-specific and later added to the wind farm dataset in an aggregated form. For the categorical variables, the modulus of the respective turbine values was taken, and for numerical variables, the average was calculated. The two variables, number of turbines (i.e. wind farm size) and wind farm shape (i.e. a rough shape of the wind farm), were obtained from the wind farms data and added to the turbine dataset.

Sources

[1] Open street map. https://openstreetmap.org/. [Online] Accessed: 2022-10-02.

[2] Cutler J. Cleveland, Christopher Morris, Dictionary of Energy (Second Edition), Elsevier, 2015, Pages 638-655, ISBN 9780080968117

https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-096811-7.50023-8.

[4] Dunnett, S., Sorichetta, A., Taylor, G. et al. Harmonised global datasets of wind and solar farm locations and power. Sci Data 7, 130 (2020).

https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-020-0469-8

[5] Buchhorn, M. ; Lesiv, M. ; Tsendbazar, N. - E. ; Herold, M. ; Bertels, L. ; Smets, B. Copernicus Global Land Cover Layers-Collection 2. Remote Sensing 2020, 12 Volume 108, 1044. doi:10.3390/rs12061044

[6] Theobald, D. M., Harrison-Atlas, D., Monahan, W. B., & Albano, C. M. (2015). Ecologically-relevant maps of landforms and physiographic diversity for climate adaptation planning. PloS one, 10(12), e0143619

[7] Global Multi-resolution Terrain Elevation Data 2010 courtesy of the U.S. Geological Survey

Over time there have been a number of tide gauges deployed at Casey Station, Antarctica. The data download files contain further information about the gauges, but some of the information has been summarised here. Note that this metadata record only describes tide gauge data from 1996 to 2007. More recent data are described elsewhere.

Old Tide Gauge 2 (TG002_Old) Oldtg02 is a download from the first gauge submerged deployed at Casey in 1992. This gauge was lost but later recovered standing upright in the mud. The gauge overwrote its memory and stopped. The record runs from 02/04/97 to 08/09/99. It is highly probable that the position of the gauge was stable during this period. There is data from the same period from gauge TG06.

Tide Gauge 2 (TG002) These folders contain data downloaded from the redeployed gauge TG02. TG02 was redeployed in November 2003. The Record runs from 12/11/03 to 4/3/05. It is expected that data will be downloaded from this gauge for the next 4-5 years.

This gauge was deployed after the previously deployed gauge ran out of battery energy. There is therefore a substantial gap in the record prior to 12/11/03.

Tide Gauge 6 (TG006) Tg06 was deployed at Casey in March 1996. The battery became exhausted in June 2003. The gauge was replaced by TG02 in Novenber 2003. There is therefore a gap in the data between June and November 2003.

Tide Gauges 33, 34 and 36 (TG033, TG034, TGA001, TG036) There are two wharf pressure sensors at Casey separated vertically by 2.007 m. There is also a barometer in the wharf hut. The files in this folder are from the old tide gauge data loggers. There are three loggers,

TG33 records pressures from lower water pressure gauge as 30 second average values (absolute pressure mbar). It also records wharf tube water temperatures. This logger also streams 30sec average pressure.

TG34 records pressures from upper water pressure gauge. This logger also streams 30sec average values as and 10minute average water pressure data.

TGA01 (and later replaced by TG36) records air pressure as 10 minute average values in mbar.

Further documentation from the old metadata records: Documentation dated 2001-03-07
Casey Submerged Tide Gauge

The gauge used at Casey was designed in 1991/2 by Platypus Engineering, Hobart, Tasmania. It was intended to be submerged in about 7 metres of water in a purpose made concrete mooring in the shape of a truncated pyramid. The gauge measures pressure using a Paroscientific Digiquartz Pressure Transducer with a full scale pressure of 30 psi absolute. The accuracy of the transducer is 1 in 10,000 of full scale over the calibrated temperature. The overall accuracy of the system is better than +/- 3 mm for a known water density. Data is retrieved from the gauges by lowering a coil assembly on the end of a cable over a projecting knob on the top of the gauge and by use of an interface unit, a serial connection can be established to the gauge. Time setting and data retrieval can be then achieved. One of these of these gauges was deployed at Casey in early 1992 in a mooring in Geoffrey Bay. The mooring was apparently moved by sea ice and was later found, but the gauge is missing. A new mooring, one which was originally made for Harry Burton for use in one of the Vestfold Hills lakes, was taken by ship to Casey and was placed in Geoffrey Bay using a collection of 200 litre fuel drum to float the mooring into position. A new gauge was deployed in March 1996. The gauge was lowered into position with the holding grab wired closed to check that the device fitted in the mooring. The gauge became jammed so was left in situ with the grab preventing access to downloading. In April that year Roger Handsworth attached weights to the floating ropes of the grab to sink them out of the way of the freezing surface water. Divers located the mooring and gauge in late 1997 and 22 months of tidal records were retrieved. The gauge was restarted to clear the memory and allow another two years of data to be collected without any problems from a small software bug. Conversion of raw data to tidal records is done as detailed in document DATAFORMAT1.DOC .

Levelling In December 1997 a set of water level observations were made by the station leader. These observations have been sent to National Tidal Facility, Flinders University, SA to derive a value for mean sea level.

Documentation dated 2008-10-17 There is one submerged bottom mounted gauge at Casey. (TG02)

The wharf based tide gauge installation at Casey has been upgraded with 2 Campbell Scientific CR1000 dataloggers. One logger (Main) receives signals from two wharf installed submerged Paroscientific Digiquartz pressure sensors and a barometer. The other logger (Backup) receives signals from only the two submerged sensors. Pressures are recorded in hPa, temperatures from the Digiquartz sensors in degrees C and temperatures from thermistors in the water column in unscaled A/D values.

The two...

Time series of metocean variables derived form WAMOS (marine radar) data collected during the Antarctic Circumnavigation Expedition (ACE, https://spi-ace-expedition.ch/), from December 2016 to March 2017.

Waves in the Southern Ocean are the biggest on the planet. They exert extreme stresses on the coastline of the Sub-Antarctic Islands, which affects coastal morphology and the delicate natural environment that the coastline offers. There is a lack of field data in the Sub-Antarctic and Antarctic Oceans. Thus, wave models are not well calibrated and perform poorly in these regions. Uncertainties relate to the difficulties to model the strong interactions between waves and currents (the Antarctic Circumpolar and tidal currents) and between waves and ice (reflected waves modify the incident field and ice floes affect transmission into the ice-covered ocean). Drawbacks in wave modelling undermine our understanding and ability to protect this delicate ocean and coastal environment.

By installing a Wave and Surface Current Monitoring System (WaMoS II, a marine X-Band radar) on the research vessel Akademic Thresnikov and using the meteo-station and GPS on-board, this project has produced a large database of winds, waves and surface currents. Data were collected during the Antarctic Circumnavigation Expedition, which took place from Dec. 2016 to Mar. 2017.

The dataset contains timeseries of relevant metocean variables divided in - Sea state and current parameters (PARA, MPAR) - Sea state and current parameters (PEAK, MPEK) - Ship course, position and speed (COURSE) - Wind speed and direction file (WIND)

Sea state and current parameters files (PARA, MPAR)

File Name: -Prefix-_-rigID-_YYYYMM.txt - Prefix: 1) ‘PARA’ : spatial mean of the parameters (that pass the WaMoS II internal quality control) averaged over WaMoS II analysis areas (up to 9) placed within the radar field of view. 2) ‘MPAR’ : temporal average parameters calculated using all data collected during the past dt=20 minutes of the time specified in the file. - YYYY : Year. - MM : Month. - rigID : WaMoS II platform’s ID code (3 letters)

Time reference: CPU clock.

Values of missing parameters are set to -9, -9.0.

List of parameters: - date : Date and TIME of acquisition (YYYYMMDDHHMMSS). - Hs : Significant wave height (m). - Tp : Peak wave period (s). - Tm2 : Mean wave period (s). - Lp : Peak wave length (m). - MDir : Mean wave direction (deg). - PDir : Peak wave direction (deg). - TpS : First swell system - wave period (s). - PDS : First swell system - peak wave direction (deg). - lpS : First swell system - peak wave length (m). - TpW : Wind sea peak wave period (s). - PDW : Wind sea wave direction (deg). - lpW : Wind sea wave length (m). - Usp : Surface current speed (m/s). - Udir : Surface current direction (deg). - IQ : Quality index, ranging from 0 ('no problems detected') to 999 ('images cannot be analysed'). - NSPEC : Number of averaged spectra. - INDEX : Quality index threshold (OK: IQ<Index). - Hmax : Maximum wave height (m). - Tlim : Limit period to separate Swell/Wind Sea (s). - ELEVL : Error number. - CFG-Date : Date/time of last wamos.cfg change (DD-MM-YYYY HH.MI.SS).

Sea state and current parameters files (PEAK, MPEK):

File Name: -Prefix-_-rigID-_YYYYMM.txt - Prefix: 1) ‘PEAK’ : spatial mean of the parameters (that pass the WaMoS II internal quality control) averaged over WaMoS II analysis areas (up to 9) placed within the radar field of view. 2) ‘MPEK’ : temporal average parameters calculated using all data collected during the past dt=20 minutes of the time specified in the file. - YYYY : Year. - MM : Month. - rigID : WaMoS II platform’s ID code (3 letters)

Time reference: CPU clock.

Values of missing parameters are set to -9, -9.0.

List of parameters: - date : Date and TIME of acquisition (YYYYMMDDHHMMSS). - Hs : Significant wave height (m). - Tp : Peak wave period (s). - PDir : Peak wave direction (deg). - Lp : Peak wave length (m). - HsW : Wind sea significant wave height (m). - TpW : Wind sea wave period (s). - PDW : Wind sea wave direction deg). - lpW : Wind sea wave length (m). - HSS1 : First swell system significant wave height (m). - Tps1 : First swell system: wave period (s). - PDs1 : First swell peak wave direction (deg). - lps1 : First swell peak wave length (m). - HSS2 : Second swell system significant wave height (m). - Tps2 : Second swell system: wave period (s). - PDs2 : Second swell peak wave direction (deg). - lps2 : Second swell peak wave length (m). - HSS3 : Third swell system significant wave height (m). - Tps3 : Third swell system: wave period (s). - PDs3 : Third swell peak wave direction (deg). - lps3 : Third swell peak wave length (m). - Us : Surface current speed (m/s). - Ud : Surface current direction (deg). - IQ : Quality index. - Tlim : Limit period to separate Swell/Wind Sea (s). - ...