In 2019, most of Italians assumed to belong to the middle class. More specifically, 52 percent of individuals defined their social status as middle class. Moreover, 37 percent of Italians stated to be part of the lower social class. Data for social class perception suggested that the occupation with the highest share of upper-class people was being a student. At the same time, freelance professional was most popular job position among middle class citizens, while the majority of unemployed people felt to belong to the lower class.

How much do Italians earn on average?

From 2006 to 2015, gross household disposable income per capita in Italy was fluctuating with no precise pattern. In the next three years, however, gross income per capita steadily increased until peaking above 31 thousand U.S. dollars in 2018. This figure put Italy at the 17th place in the ranking of OECD countries with the gross disposable income per household.

Income inequalities in Italy

National average figures can be quite misleading. In Italy, substantial economic differences across regions and also due to gender can be observed. Inhabitants of the South and the Islands earn on average around ten thousand euros less annually than Italians from the North East. Moreover, female households’ average net income in 2017 was eight thousand euros smaller than male households’ income.

The 2019 International Social Survey Programme (ISSP) studied economic inequality in Finland. The respondents' attitudes were surveyed on income disparity between social groups, occupations and societies as well as which actors in society should solve these disparities. In addition, the survey charted the respondents' socio-economic situation, Finnish taxation, and conflicts between social groups. The previous ISSP survey regarding inequality was collected in 2009. First, the respondents' opinions were charted concerning the importance of different factors for succeeding in life, such as parents' wealth, ambition, social networks, corruption, or gender. Additionally, views were canvassed on fairness of differences in wealth between rich and poor countries. The respondents were also asked to estimate what persons in different occupations earned (euros/month, gross) and what the respondents thought they ought to be paid. Next, the respondents were presented with a set of statements that they were asked to agree or disagree with on a 5-point Likert scale. The questions concerned, for example, whether income disparity was too great in Finland, who should intervene with income disparity, whether the policies of the government were justified and whether the current level of taxation was justified. The respondents also placed themselves on a 10-point scale according to whether they considered themselves to be at the top or the bottom in society - currently, in childhood home and ten years into the future. Their views were also enquired on which factors they deemed important in deciding one's level of pay. Views on the hierarchical structure of society were examined by showing the respondents five figures representing differently built societies and asking which of the figures corresponded most closely to the situation in the respondent's own country, and which figure corresponded most closely to an optimal situation. The respondents were also asked questions regarding their economic situation at the time of the survey. Background variables included, for instance, gender, year of birth, region of residence (NUTS2), occupation, educational background, religious affiliation, which party the respondent voted for in previous elections, number of children, income, marital status, and statistical grouping of municipalities (urban, semi-urban, rural). The survey also included questions concerning the respondent's spouse/partner and parents' occupations.

During a 2023 survey, around 35 percent of respondents interviewed in Brazil said they belonged to the middle class. Meanwhile, 24.3 percent of the interviewees defined their social class as "low" and 25.7 percent stated that they were part of the middle class.Furthermore, Brazil's Gini coefficient, an indicator that measures wealth distribution, shows Brazil is one of the most unequal countries in the Latin American region.

This folder contains files to help you replicate the analyses from the study "The Myth of the Middle Class Squeeze: Employment and Income by Class in Six Western Countries, 1980-2020". The study uses data from the Luxembourg Income Study (LIS, 2024). To access this data, you must request access to the LIS data by visiting this website: https://www.lisdatacenter.org/data-access/lissy/eligibility/. Once you have access, you can use the codes in this folder to analyze the data. The analysis was conducted in R, and all the packages used are included in the R scripts. Note: The LIS data are not directly accessible. Instead, researchers can access an online platform to submit their analysis codes. The platform then returns the results. You can't download or physically access the data, but you can still use the codes provided here to get the same results as the original study. The LIS regularly updates new modules and revises old ones. This project started in 2022 and, therefore, uses the selection of countries released in LIS in that year. The final execution of this set of modules was done in 2024. To ensure you get the same results, please select the modules in the code and run them on the 2024 release.

What can we learn about social stratification and socio-economic structure through the study of the social relationships that connect people from different occupations? Sociologists have long recognised that empirical patterns of social interaction are revealing about the nature of the underlying social structure, and that the social relationships of occupations are major forces in defining the social structure. This project deals with observational data about the social interations held between the incumbents of occupational positions in order to apply two contrasting statistical approaches to the analysis of social interaction data. By doing so it makes new substantive and methodological contributions to exploring the occupational order and its relationship to social structure in both general and specific ways. The study uses large scale census and survey data from many different countries and time periods. The two methodologies used are 'social network analysis' and 'social interaction distance analysis'. The latter has been used before to analyse occupations (eg the applicants' 'CAMSIS' project); this project updates previous analysis, extending the range of results and methodological resources linked to the approach. The former is an exciting emerging methodology which offers innovative new insights into the nature of social relations in occupations. Aggregate statistical calculations about occupational units based upon survey datasets

Comparison of selected fit indices and degree of model improvement over the different latent class models, ESS6, age 21–65, 29 countries, weighted (N = 35,489).

The consensus view among political scientists is that the subjective social status of low-skilled workers has declined over the last decades, and this status loss of the working class is seen as contributing to the rise of the radical right. We examine the micro-foundation of this claim by tracing the evolution of subjective status for different social classes in Europe and the US. We use all available survey rounds of the ISSP 1987- 2017 and replicate findings with the ESS 2002-2016. While unskilled workers perceive their status to be lower than members of the middle class everywhere, we find no relative or absolute fall in their subjective social status over time. Unskilled workers were at the bottom of the status hierarchy in the 1990s and 2010s. Our findings throw doubt on the narrative that sees workers’ falling subjective social status as a prominent driver behind the rise of the radical right.

Multilevel model of relationships between SSS and ACE accuracy as a function of countries’ Long-Term Orientation (LTO) Relational Mobility (RM) and Gini.

The International Social Survey Programme (ISSP) is a continuous programme of cross-national collaboration running annual surveys on topics important for the social sciences. The programme started in 1984 with four founding members - Australia, Germany, Great Britain, and the United States – and has now grown to almost 50 member countries from all over the world. As the surveys are designed for replication, they can be used for both, cross-national and cross-time comparisons. Each ISSP module focuses on a specific topic, which is repeated in regular time intervals. Please, consult the documentation for details on how the national ISSP surveys are fielded. The present study focuses on questions about social inequality. Most important reasons for social advancement (scale); judgement on equal opportunities in the Federal Republic; attitude to the necessity for significant wage differences; attitude to social differences (scale); estimated gross income of selected occupational groups and personal ideas about a fair gross income for these occupational groups; attitude to the country´s income differences and to various duties of the welfare state (scale); judgement on the current tax burden for different income classes; attitude to a higher tax burden for higher income groups; judgement on strength of contrasts or conflicts between various social groups in the country; self-assessment of social class (scale and 5-layer class division); social origins; time worked each week; position as a superior; union membership; employment and occupation of spouse; sex as well as month and year of birth of all members of the household; party preference. Das International Social Survey Programme (ISSP) ist ein länderübergreifendes, fortlaufendes Umfrageprogramm, das jährlich Erhebungen zu Themen durchführt, die für die Sozialwissenschaften wichtig sind. Das Programm begann 1984 mit vier Gründungsmitgliedern - Australien, Deutschland, Großbritannien und den Vereinigten Staaten - und ist inzwischen auf fast 50 Mitgliedsländer aus aller Welt angewachsen. Da die Umfragen auf Replikationen ausgelegt sind, können die Daten sowohl für länder- als auch für zeitübergreifende Vergleiche genutzt werden. Jedes ISSP-Modul konzentriert sich auf ein bestimmtes Thema, das in regelmäßigen Zeitabständen wiederholt wird. Details zur Durchführung der nationalen ISSP-Umfragen entnehmen Sie bitte der Dokumentation. Die vorliegende Studie konzentriert sich auf Fragen zu sozialer Ungleichheit. Wichtigste Gründe für sozialen Aufstieg (Skala); Beurteilung der Chancengleichheit in der Bundesrepublik; Einstellung zur Notwendigkeit größerer Unterschiede in der Entlohnung; Einstellung zu sozialen Unterschieden (Skala); geschätzte Bruttoeinkommen ausgewählter Berufsgruppen und eigene Vorstellungen über einen gerechten Bruttoverdienst für diese Berufssparten; Einstellung zu den Einkommensunterschieden im Lande und zu verschiedenen Aufgaben des Sozialstaats (Skala); Beurteilung der derzeitigen Steuerbelastung für unterschiedliche Einkommensklassen; Einstellung zu einer höheren Steuerlast für höhere Einkommensgruppen; Beurteilung der Stärke von Gegensätzen bzw. Konflikten zwischen verschiedenen sozialen Gruppen im Lande; Selbsteinschätzung der sozialen Schichtzugehörigkeit (Skalometer und 5-stufige Schichteinteilung); soziale Herkunft; Wochenarbeitszeit; Stellung als Vorgesetzter; Gewerkschaftsmitgliedschaft; Erwerbstätigkeit und Beruf des Ehepartners; Geschlecht sowie Geburtsmonat und Geburtsjahr aller Haushaltsmitglieder; Parteipräferenz.

This data collection was designed to provide systematic data for analyzing class structure. The central objective of the survey was to develop rigorous measures of the relational dimensions of social inequality (particularly relations of authority, autonomy, and property) to complement data on the gradational dimensions of social inequality (e.g., income, education, and occupational status). In order to explore the macro-properties of class structures and their effects via comparative analysis, the survey was replicated in a number of countries in addition to the United States. This collection presents data for ten countries: the United States (1980), Sweden (1980), Finland (1981), Norway (1982), Canada (1982), Great Britain (1984), West Germany (1985), Denmark (1985), Australia (1986), and Japan (1987). Seven general topic areas are covered: class relations, other aspects of social structural location, organizational context, class biography and class experience, the sexual division of labor in the home, social and political attitudes, and political participation. Questions addressing the respondent's location within class relations cover work-related issues such as supervision, decision-making, autonomy, respondent's location within the organizational hierarchy of the work place, ownership, labor-market position, and income. Information on other aspects of social structural location includes occupation, industry, geographical location, sex, race, and ethnicity of respondents. Among the measures of organizational context are size of employing organization, linkages to the state sector, linkages to larger corporations, and industrial sector. Under the topics of class biography and class experience, information is provided concerning class origins and job histories of the respondent, his or her parents, spouse, and closest friends, and class-relevant experiences such as unemployment, union membership, and participation in a strike.

Multilevel spearman correlation coefficients between the different indicators of Bourdieusian capital and psychological capital, ESS6, age 21–65, 29 countries, weighted (N = 35,489).

Zero order correlations and descriptive statistics for study variables.

Age: 21-65. displaced persons and refugees previously employed in agriculture in the former Soviet zone.

As part of the project "Social Stratification in Eastern Europe after 1989," sample surveys were conducted in 1993 and 1994 in six countries: Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Russia, and Slovakia. Using a questionnaire common to all countries, national probability samples of approximately 5,000 members of the adult population were surveyed in five of the six countries in 1993; in Poland, due to the lack of local funds, the data collection was delayed until 1994 and the sample size was reduced to approximately 3,500. To permit analyses of special interest to urban geographers (the Dutch funding was provided by a study committee of the Dutch NSF consisting of sociologists and urban geographers), over-samples of the populations of Prague and Warsaw were surveyed, with the sample sizes sufficient to bring the sum of cases from the over-sample and the national sample in each country to approximately 1,500. (About 900 cases each are available for Budapest and Sofia, generated by the national sample design. Thus, a four city comparison of Eastern European capitals is feasible.) The design of the survey called for exactly comparable wording of questions, and variation in the response categories only where national variations in circumstances (e.g., different religious distributions) warranted it. Country teams were free to add local questions at the end of the questionnaire. To ensure such comparability, the questionnaire was translated into each local language and then back-translated into English; the back-translated versions were compared as a group by a multi-lingual team and discrepancies in wording corrected. Inevitably, despite our best intentions, minor variations crept into the questionnaire. These are identified at appropriate places in the Codebook. The local language questionnaires are shown in Appendix G (Vol. II). (Probability samples of about 1,000 members of the old elite and about 1,000 members of the new elite in each country except Slovakia were also surveyed, using a similar but not identical questionnaire. These surveys have a separate codebook, which may be found under the title "Social Stratification in Eastern Europe after 1989: Elite Survey".)

The International Social Survey Programme (ISSP) is a continuous programme of cross-national collaboration running annual surveys on topics important for the social sciences. The programme started in 1984 with four founding members - Australia, Germany, Great Britain, and the United States – and has now grown to almost 50 member countries from all over the world. As the surveys are designed for replication, they can be used for both, cross-national and cross-time comparisons. Each ISSP module focuses on a specific topic, which is repeated in regular time intervals. Please, consult the documentation for details on how the national ISSP surveys are fielded. The present study focuses on questions about social inequality. The release of the cumulated ISSP ´Social Inequality´ modules for the years 1987, 1992, 1999 and 2009 consists of two separate datasets: ZA5890 and ZA5891. This documentation deals with the supplementary dataset ZA5891. This dataset contains in addition to some only apparently cumulated substantial variables all those national specific background variables that could not be cumulated for various reasons, or in case of the miscellaneous variables differ from the cumulation standard. However, the variables of this dataset can be matched easily to the cumulated file if necessary. A comprehensive overview on the contents, the structure and basic coding rules of both data files can be found in the following guide: Guide for the ISSP ´Social Inequality´ cumulation of the years 1987,1992, 1999 and 2009 Social Inequality I-IV - Add On: Substantial variables on ideas of real and appropriate earnings of different professions for all countries and modules if available. Country specific background variables on respondent’s education, respondent’s income, family income, party affiliation, party vote last general election, size of community, ethnic identity and on national occupations for respondent, spouse/ partner, father and mother if deviating from ILO ISCO-4 digits or cumulation standard. Miscellaneous variables including module specific background variables and country specific variables for cumulated substantial and background variables if deviating from cumulation standard: type of community: urban-rural area; industrial sector (1987, 1992); number of supervised people (1992, 1999); respondent´s working type: private versus public sector (1987); working type of spouse/partner: working for private or public sector or self-employed (2009); administrative mode of data-collection and case substitution flag (2009); self-placement of social class (Philippines 1992); industrial sector (1992, only in Austria, Germany, Russia and United States); current employment status of spouse/partner (Philippines 1992); household composition (children and adults) (United States 1992); type of living (Philippines 1992); party affiliation left-right (derived from party vote intention) (Hungary 1992); region (Slovak Republic 1999 and 2009, Czech Republic and Israel 2009). Das International Social Survey Programme (ISSP) ist ein länderübergreifendes, fortlaufendes Umfrageprogramm, das jährlich Erhebungen zu Themen durchführt, die für die Sozialwissenschaften wichtig sind. Das Programm begann 1984 mit vier Gründungsmitgliedern - Australien, Deutschland, Großbritannien und den Vereinigten Staaten - und ist inzwischen auf fast 50 Mitgliedsländer aus aller Welt angewachsen. Da die Umfragen auf Replikationen ausgelegt sind, können die Daten sowohl für länder- als auch für zeitübergreifende Vergleiche genutzt werden. Jedes ISSP-Modul konzentriert sich auf ein bestimmtes Thema, das in regelmäßigen Zeitabständen wiederholt wird. Details zur Durchführung der nationalen ISSP-Umfragen entnehmen Sie bitte der Dokumentation. Die vorliegende Studie konzentriert sich auf Fragen zu sozialer Ungleichheit. Das Release der kumulierten ISSP´Social Inequality´ Module für die Jahre 1987, 1992, 1999 und 2009 besteht aus zwei getrennten Datensätzen: ZA5890 und ZA5891. Diese Dokumentation befasst sich mit dem Add-On Datensatz ZA5891. Dieser Datensatz enthält all jene spezifischen nationalen Hintergrundvariablen, die zum Standard-ISSP gehören, aber aus verschiedenen Gründen nicht kumuliert werden konnten. Allerdings können die Variablen des Datensatzes einfach auf die kumulierte Datei angepasst werden, falls erforderlich. Einen umfassenden Überblick über die Inhalte, die Struktur und Grundcodierungsregeln beider Datendateien finden Sie in der folgenden Anleitung unter: Guide for the ISSP ´Social Inequality´ cumulation of the years 1987,1992, 1999 and 2009 Social Inequality I-IV - Add On: Wesentliche Variablen über Vorstellungen über reale und angemessene Einkommen verschiedener Berufe für alle Länder und Module, falls verfügbar. Länderspezifische Hintergrundvariablen hinsichtlich Bildung des Befragten, Einkommen des Befragten, Familieneinkommen, Parteizugehörigkeit, Abstimmungsverhalten bei der letzten Wahl, Gemeindegröße, ethnische Identität und hinsichtlich der nationalen Berufe für den Befragten, dessen Ehegatten bzw. Partner, Vater und Mutter, falls abweichend von ILO ISCO -4 Ziffern oder der Standardkumulierung. Sonstige Variablen einschließlich modulspezifischer Hintergrundvariablen und länderspezifischer Variablen für kumulierte wesentliche und Hintergrundvariablen, wenn abweichend von der Standardkumulierung: Gemeindetyp: Stadt-Land-Bereich; Industriesektor (1987, 1992); Anzahl der beaufsichtigten Personen (1992, 1999); Erwerbstyp des Befragten: privater oder öffentlicher Sektor (1987); Erwerbstyp des Ehegatten bzw. des Partners: Arbeit im privaten oder öffentlichen Sektor oder Selbstständige (2009); Verwaltungsmodus der Datenerhebung und case substitution flag (2009); Selbsteinstufung der Schichtzugehörigkeit (Philippinen 1992); Industriesektor (1992, nur in Österreich, Deutschland, Russland und den USA); aktueller Beschäftigungsstatus des Ehegatten bzw. des Partners (Philippinen 1992); Haushaltszusammensetzung (Kinder und Erwachsene) (USA 1992); Wohnart (Philippinen 1992); Parteizugehörigkeit links-rechts (abgeleitet von Parteiwahlabsicht) (Ungarn 1992); Region (Slowakei 1999 und 2009, Tschechische Republik und Israel 2009).

Research project

The project “Educational Success and Social Participation of Socially and Educationally Disadvantaged Students with Migration Background in Extended Education” (abbr. in German: GeLeGanz) was funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) under the funding code 01JB211A-C from 2021 to 2025.

Traditionally, the German education system is organized as a “half-day”-system; instruction usually takes place in the morning. Many stakeholders see the conversion from half-day to all-day schooling as a way of overcoming the challenges facing the system, including those posed by immigration. High expectations are attached to the expansion of all-day schooling, in particular the strengthening of the educational success and social participation of socially and educationally disadvantaged students with a migration background. As yet however, these goals have not been sufficiently achieved in Germany. Education systems in other countries have established comparable offerings of high quality that appear to be effective. The GeLeGanz project aims to use findings and knowledge from other countries to better exploit the potential of all-day schools in Germany, particularly at the primary school level. The primary focus of the GeLeGanz project is on the potential of all-day primary schools to improve the educational opportunities of socially and educationally disadvantaged students, in particular those who live in a migrant family.

GeLeGanz is a collaborative project, carried out by three partners.

Freie Universität Berlin (FU):

• Prof. Dr. Marianne Schüpbach (Coordinator of the collaborative project, Co-head of the subproject FU Berlin): marianne.schuepbach@fu-berlin.de
• Dr. Nanine Lilla (Co-head of the subproject FU Berlin): nanine.lilla@fu-berlin.de
• Dr. Haiqin Ning (Researcher, Operational coordinator of the collaborative project): haiqin.ning@fu-berlin.de
• Jule Schmidt (Researcher): jule.swaantje.schmidt@fu-berlin.de

German Children and Youth Foundation (DKJS):

• Anna-Margarete Davis (Co-head of the subproject DKJS): anna-margarete.davis@dkjs.de
• Nicola Andresen (Co-Lead of the subproject DKJS and school counselling): nicola.andresen@dkjs.de

University of Hamburg (UHH):

• Prof. Dr. Dr. h.c. mult. Ingrid Gogolin (head of the subproject UHH): gogolin@uni-hamburg.de
• Luise Krejcik (Researcher): luise.krejcik@uni-hamburg.de

To achieve the objectives, the project was divided into the following phases:

Phase I: Expert interviews with researchers from the German and international research context on their perception of quality features and conditions for the successful design of all-day schools.

Phase II: The experts were interviewed again to evaluate and further specify the results with regard to the target group. For this, they were provided with a summary of the statements made by researchers from the German and international research context in Phase I.

Phase III: Focus group interviews with various practice-oriented actors from the German all-day school context, based on the results of expert interviews, to gain information and assessments related to the implementation of measures that might improve all-day schooling in Germany.

Phase IV: Based on the insights gained in the first three parts of the project, materials and concepts should be developed together with practice partner DKJS and transfer partners.

Project website: https://www.ewi-psy.fu-berlin.de/en/v/geleganz/index.html

Data set in UHH

The present data set comprises 30 expert interviews with 15 researchers from the German education research community, which were collected as part of the GeLeGanz project in phase I and II.

Experts: 15 researchers were interviewed twice (1x in phase I and 1x in phase II of the project). All were experts with relevant research experience, but different perspectives on the project’s guiding questions: all-day schools, informal and nonformal education, cultural and language diversity, social inequality and school development. The interview partners were identified via a review of empirical research on conditions of educational success of socially disadvantaged children with a migrant background and the potential advantages of all-day schools.

Interview procedure & topics: A sequential approach was chosen for conducting the interviews: In Phase I, interviewees were asked for

1. research-based assessments of features of high-quality all-day schools, especially for the support of socially disadvantaged children with a migration history,
2. factors that promote or hinder participation in all-day schools’ offers,
3. assessments of the current all-day school landscape in Germany.

In Phase II, the experts were interviewed again. They were provided with a summary of the statements made by the German and international experts in interviews of phase I. Experts were invited to prioritize the mentioned quality features and the potential for adaptation and implementation in the German context.

A semi-structured, problem-centred approach was used to conduct the interviews (Witzel, 2000). The guidelines included narrative-generating impulse questions, follow-up questions to promote understanding and narrative generation, and ad hoc questions on the topics discussed. The interviews were conducted in German by two trained interviewers (online or analogous). All interviews were recorded based on informed consent.

Period of the survey: The interviews were conducted from March to December 2022.

Transcription & anonymization: The transcripts were initially computer-generated, then completely revised manually according to established transcription and anonymization rules (Rädiker and Kuckartz, 2019, p. 44f).

Contents of the data set UHH:

• Collected storage of the 30 interview transcripts in a single MAXQDA project (version 2022, MX22-file)
• Individual file of the 30 interview transcripts in Excel format (xls) and html format
• Anonymization and transcription rules, data naming scheme (pdf)

Note: The dataset is stored in the ZFMD repository of the University of Hamburg in both an open-access (DOI 10.25592/uhhfdm.14815) and a restricted-access version (DOI 10.25592/uhhfdm.14771). Both datasets are available from January 1, 2026. In the open access dataset, research-related data such as research projects and studies of the respondents are anonymized in addition to personal and school-related data. In the restricted access dataset, only the respondents' personal and school-related data are anonymized.

References:

Rädiker, S., & Kuckartz, U. (2019). Analyse qualitativer Daten mit MAXQDA: Text, Audio und Video. Springer Fachmedien.

Witzel, A. (2000). Das problemzentrierte Interview [25 Absätze]. Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 1(1), Article 22. http://nbnresolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0114-fqs0001228

Demographic and social structure of displaced country people and desire for occupation in agriculture. Topics: degree of information on the government´s support measures based on the displaced persons and refugee law; occupation before and after 1945; interest in taking over a farm in the FRG and concepts of one´s own farm; interest in part-time agricultural work; present living conditions and satisfaction with housing situation; living conditions before the war; city of origin; size of farm left behind; job satisfaction and commute time to work; satisfation with income; year of marriage; size of city. Demography: age (classified); sex; marital status; religious denomination; school education; vocational training; occupation; household income; size of household; composition of household; head of household; state; refugee status. Interviewer rating: willingness of respondent to cooperate; number of contact attempts. Demographische und soziale Struktur des heimatvertriebenen Landvolkes und Wunsch nach einer Tätigkeit in der Landwirtschaft. Themen: Informiertheit über die staatlichen Förderungsmaßnahmen aufgrund des Vertriebenen- und Flüchtlingsgesetzes; Berufstätigkeit vor und nach 1945; Interesse an Übernahme eines landwirtschaftlichen Betriebes in der BRD und Vorstellungen über einen eigenen Betrieb; Interesse an einer landwirtschaftlichen Nebenerwerbsstelle; derzeitige Wohnverhältnisse und Zufriedenheit mit der Wohnsituation; Wohnverhältnisse vor dem Kriege; Herkunftsort; Größe des zurückgelassenen landwirtschaftlichen Betriebes; Arbeitszufriedenheit und Wegezeiten zur Arbeitsstelle; Einkommenszufriedenheit; Hochzeitsjahr; Ortsgröße. Demographie: Alter (klassiert); Geschlecht; Familienstand; Konfession; Schulbildung; Berufsausbildung; Beruf; Haushaltseinkommen; Haushaltsgröße; Haushaltszusammensetzung; Haushaltungsvorstand; Bundesland; Flüchtlingsstatus. Interviewerrating: Kooperationsbereitschaft des Befragten; Anzahl der Kontaktversuche. Multi-stage random sample of displaced persons and refugees previously employed in agriculture in the former Soviet zone.

Empirical research in various countries shows that a significant part of the population is subjectively identified with the middle classes. Starting from a classification of people in society developed by individuals themselves, we analyze how they identify with a social position. Our analysis is based on a survey in which the participants were asked to perform a classification game of vignettes representative of people in Chilean society. The survey was applied in Chile in the year 2016 to a sample of 2,000 individuals statistically representative of the population. The results show the criteria that predominate when classifying people in society and what influences the definition of their social position by individuals, who self-identify mainly with a lower category.

The political institutions of the European Community and of single nations are facing new challenges and changes in the 21st century. The European Social Survey poses the question of how this change is reflected in the thinking and behaviour of the various population groups within Europe. The Austrian sub-study also explores this question. What personal ideas do Austrians have about democracy and society in their country and in the European Union? The project idea of the ESS was developed by the European Science Foundation (ESF) and the European Social Survey includes population surveys in all participating countries. A uniform questionnaire on various problems of political and social coexistence (social and political trust, governance, morality, media, social and political values and attitudes, well-being, national identity) is used, which is supplemented by country-specific questions as well as changing focus topics. The country studies are conducted with the highest possible methodological standards of empirical survey research (translation, sampling, reliability and validity control by the Scientific Monitoring Committee). The ESS is designed as a time series; the surveys are to take place every two years. The first survey wave took place in 2002/2003 and focused on migration, citizenship and social participation. The second survey wave was in 2004/2005, the main focus of the ESS 2 was on health, economic morality, family and work. The third wave of the ESS took place in 2006/2007 with the topics life biography, well-being, satisfaction. The fourth wave of the ESS was in 2008/2009, the thematic focuses were welfare state, social policy, age discrimination. The main long-term objective of the European Social Survey (ESS) is to describe and explain the interaction between the changing political and economic institutions and the attitudes, beliefs and behaviour patterns of the populations of the respective countries. The additional Austrian questions include the areas of health, social status and housing conditions (questions H37 - H65, page 49 - 51 of the questionnaire).

3 major objectives. ( 1 ): To replicate the 1965 base line study of Australian stratification and mobility SSDA study nr.7. ( 2 ): To get more insight into social mobility and social stratification in Australia beyond the fairly restricted findings of the 1965 baseline. ( 3 ): Comparison with both first and second generations of national surveys in other countries. Occupational history details are available for respondent, respondent's father, and respondent's children 21 years and over. All occupational variables have been coded according to the Australian census classification of occupations, 1971 and the Australian census classification of occupations by status score ( ANU2 )/ dates and duration of all study undertaken, and occupational data for several career points/ a special section for women on employment intentions and preferences/ and images of society and class ideology. Data also on age / birthplace / marital status / residence / ownership of house / characteristics of parental household and respondent's household / income / party preference / religion / consumption of durables / trade union membership / war service / internal / external control / job satisfaction / retirement. Background variables: basic characteristics/ place of birth/ residence/ housing situation/ household characteristics/ characteristics of parental family/household/ occupation/employment/ income/capital assets/ education/ social class/ politics/ religion/ consumption of durables