OBJECTIVES: To determine the association between area and individual measures of social disadvantage and infant health in the United Kingdom (UK). DESIGN: Systematic review and meta-analyses. DATA SOURCES: 26 databases and web sites, reference lists, experts in the field and hand-searching. STUDY SELECTION: 36 prospective and retrospective observational studies with socio-economic data and health outcomes for infants in the UK, published from 1994 to May 2011. DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS: Two independent reviewers assessed the methodological quality of the studies and abstracted data. Where possible, study outcomes were reported as odds ratios for the highest versus the lowest deprivation quintile. RESULTS: In relation to the highest versus lowest area deprivation quintiles the odds of adverse birth outcomes were 1.81 (1.71 to 1.92) for low birth weight, 1.67 (1.42 to 1.96) for premature birth and 1.54 (1.39 to 1.72) for still birth. For infant mortality rates the odds ratios were 1.72 (1.37 to 2.15) overall, 1.61 (1.08 to 2.39) for neonatal and 2.31 (2.03 to 2.64) for post-neonatal mortality. For lowest versus highest social class, the odds were 1.79 (1.71 to 1.92) for premature birth, 1.52 (1.44 to 1.61) for overall infant mortality, 1.42 (1.33 to1.51) for neonatal and 1.69 (1.53 to 1.87) for post-neonatal mortality. There are similar patterns for other infant health outcomes with the possible exception of failure to thrive, where there is no clear association. CONCLUSIONS: This review quantifies the influence of social disadvantage on infant outcomes in the UK. The magnitude of effect is similar across a range of area and individual deprivation measures and birth and mortality outcomes. Further research should explore the factors that are more proximal to mothers and infants, to help throw light on the most appropriate times to provide support and the form(s) that this support should take.

Abstract copyright UK Data Service and data collection copyright owner.

This is a mixed method data collection. The study is part of the Rural Economy and Land Use (RELU) programme. The data result from two RELU projects carried out by the same research team:
• Social and environmental conditions in rural areas (SECRA), 01/10/2004 - 30/09/2005
• Social and environmental inequalities in rural areas (SEIRA), 01/08/2007 -31/07/2009

Both SECRA and SEIRA consist of a series of social and environmental variables for the same 6,027 rural Lower Super Output Areas in England. SECRA is the base dataset produced during the pilot project. The SEIRA dataset contains additional variables. In addition, SEIRA also contains interviews with rural residents on perceptions of inequality and inequity. Interview results revealed that people recognise that rural areas offer limited opportunities for recreation and local services, and a lack of affordable housing.

SECRA: The dataset on social and environmental conditions in rural areas was intended to encourage and enable researchers and policy makers to include both social and environmental perspectives in their consideration of rural problems.

The original objectives of the one-year scoping study to produce the dataset were:
1. to compile a rural sustainability dataset incorporating both socio-economic and
environmental characteristics of rural census output areas in England;
2. to highlight and address the methodological difficulties in working with spatial and
survey data from sources in the social and environmental science domains;
3. to identify the limitations of currently available data for rural areas;
4. to pilot the use of the rural sustainability dataset for classifying rural areas according to socio-economic and environmental conditions and hence allowing the construction of typologies to provide sampling frames for further research and to inform policies for sustainable rural development;
5. to explore the possibilities of extending dataset coverage to Scotland and Northern
Ireland given differences in census data infrastructures and output design processes.

The SECRA dataset has been compiled at the level of the new Super Output Areas (SOAs) for England. The rural extent has been identified from the new Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (ODPM) definition of urban and rural areas which relies primarily on the morphology and context of settlements.

Further information and documentation for this study may be found through the ESRC Research Catalogue: Developing spatial data for the classification of rural areas.

SEIRA: This research project has investigated the nature and extent of social and environmental inequalities and injustice in rural England addressing the questions:
1. How can we measure rural spatial inequalities in (a) socio-economic and (b) environmental-ecological characteristics of small-scale areas of England?
2. How can inequality measures inform our understanding of the distributions of social and environmental deprivation in rural England?
3. How do rural residents experience the kinds of inequality identified by the research, and what types of inequalities do they perceive as inequitable?
4. Are there identifiable areas of rural England where the potential for environmental and social inequity suggests a need for policy intervention?

Inequality in social, economic and environmental conditions has important implications for individuals or groups of people experiencing its negative effects, but also for society as a whole. In urban areas, poor environments are associated frequently with deprivation and social exclusion. Where the unequal distribution of social and environmental goods is considered unfair, it constitutes social or environmental injustice. This project has quantified inequalities in social and environmental conditions throughout rural England and identified those areas where inequalities are greatest. It has also enhanced understanding of perceptions of inequality and injustice in rural areas. The work shows how rural policy can be refined and targeted to tackle these multi-faceted problems in the most appropriate way for the benefit of society.

Further information for this study may be found through the ESRC Research Catalogue webpage: Social and environmental inequalities in rural areas.

United Kingdom UK: Proportion of People Living Below 50 Percent Of Median Income: % data was reported at 11.700 % in 2021. This records an increase from the previous number of 11.500 % for 2020. United Kingdom UK: Proportion of People Living Below 50 Percent Of Median Income: % data is updated yearly, averaging 11.600 % from Dec 1968 (Median) to 2021, with 54 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 13.700 % in 1993 and a record low of 4.500 % in 1968. United Kingdom UK: Proportion of People Living Below 50 Percent Of Median Income: % data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by World Bank. The data is categorized under Global Database’s United Kingdom – Table UK.World Bank.WDI: Social: Poverty and Inequality. The percentage of people in the population who live in households whose per capita income or consumption is below half of the median income or consumption per capita. The median is measured at 2017 Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) using the Poverty and Inequality Platform (http://www.pip.worldbank.org). For some countries, medians are not reported due to grouped and/or confidential data. The reference year is the year in which the underlying household survey data was collected. In cases for which the data collection period bridged two calendar years, the first year in which data were collected is reported.;World Bank, Poverty and Inequality Platform. Data are based on primary household survey data obtained from government statistical agencies and World Bank country departments. Data for high-income economies are mostly from the Luxembourg Income Study database. For more information and methodology, please see http://pip.worldbank.org.;;The World Bank’s internationally comparable poverty monitoring database now draws on income or detailed consumption data from more than 2000 household surveys across 169 countries. See the Poverty and Inequality Platform (PIP) for details (www.pip.worldbank.org).

United Kingdom UK: Poverty Headcount Ratio at National Poverty Lines: % of Population data was reported at 18.600 % in 2017. This records an increase from the previous number of 17.000 % for 2016. United Kingdom UK: Poverty Headcount Ratio at National Poverty Lines: % of Population data is updated yearly, averaging 17.800 % from Dec 2016 (Median) to 2017, with 2 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 18.600 % in 2017 and a record low of 17.000 % in 2016. United Kingdom UK: Poverty Headcount Ratio at National Poverty Lines: % of Population data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by World Bank. The data is categorized under Global Database’s United Kingdom – Table UK.World Bank.WDI: Social: Poverty and Inequality. National poverty headcount ratio is the percentage of the population living below the national poverty line(s). National estimates are based on population-weighted subgroup estimates from household surveys. For economies for which the data are from EU-SILC, the reported year is the income reference year, which is the year before the survey year.;World Bank, Poverty and Inequality Platform. Data are compiled from official government sources or are computed by World Bank staff using national (i.e. country–specific) poverty lines.;;This series only includes estimates that to the best of our knowledge are reasonably comparable over time for a country. Due to differences in estimation methodologies and poverty lines, estimates should not be compared across countries.

BackgroundChildren living in disadvantaged socio-economic circumstances (SEC) are more commonly victims of bullying, but pathways leading to social inequalities in being bullied are unclear. We assess how early life risk factors might mediate the increased risk of being bullied at age seven for children living in disadvantaged circumstances.Material and methodsUsing data from 5,857 children in the UK Millennium Cohort Study (MCS) we calculate risk ratios (RR) for being bullied at age seven (child-reported), by household income quintile. Socially patterned risk factors for being bullied relating to social networks, family relationships and child characteristics from birth to age five were adjusted for to assess if they mediated any association between SEC and being bullied.Results48.6% of children reported having been bullied. Children living in the lowest income households were at 20% greater risk of being bullied compared to those from the highest (RR1.20, 95%CI 1.06,1.36). Controlling for social networks, family relationships and child characteristics attenuated the increased risk for children in low income households to aRR 1.19 (95%CI 1.05, 1.35), aRR 1.16 (95%CI 1.02,1.32) and aRR 1.13 (95%CI 1.00,1.28) respectively. Our final model adjusted for risk factors across all domains attenuated the RR by 45% (aRR 1.11,95%CI 0.97,1.26).ConclusionsAbout half of children reported being bullied by age seven with a clear social gradient. The excess risk in children growing up in disadvantaged circumstances was partially explained by differences in their early years relating to their social network, family relationships and the child’s own abilities and behaviours. Policies to reduce inequalities in these risk factors may also reduce inequalities in the risk of being bullied in childhood.

The Poverty and Social Exclusion Living Standards Survey provided crucial information about the living standards experienced by UK households, with particular interest in issues of income inequality, poverty and social exclusion. Survey fieldwork was conducted separately in Great Britain (England, Scotland, Wales) and Northern Ireland. In Great Britain the study was conducted by the NatCen Social Research on behalf of the University of Bristol. In Northern Ireland the study was conducted by Central Survey Unit (CSU) of the Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency (NISRA) on behalf of Queen's University Belfast.

These data show consumption-based greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of UK households from 2001-2020. As demographic variables, income decile and age group are attached. Emissions are shown in two different ways. First, emissions are shown for each year individually. Second, emissions are shown as a 2007 equivalent. These second data show the emissions that consumption from the different years would have caused assuming the economic structure and emission coefficients from 2007. Data are reported as a carbon equivalent, meaning that all GHGs are converted into their carbon equivalent. The GHGs included are carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulphur hexafluoride and nitrogen trifluoride.

Doctoral Training Partnerships: a range of postgraduate training is funded by the Research Councils. For information on current funding routes, see the common terminology at https://www.ukri.org/apply-for-funding/how-we-fund-studentships/. Training grants may be to one organisation or to a consortia of research organisations. This portal will show the lead organisation only.

This indicator measures inequalities in life expectancy at birth within England as a whole, each English region, and each local authority. Life expectancy at birth is calculated for each deprivation decile of lower super output areas within each area and then the slope index of inequality (SII) is calculated based on these figures.

The SII is a measure of the social gradient in life expectancy, i.e., how much life expectancy varies with deprivation. It takes account of health inequalities across the whole range of deprivation within each area and summarises this in a single number. This represents the range in years of life expectancy across the social gradient from most to least deprived, based on a statistical analysis of the relationship between life expectancy and deprivation across all deprivation deciles.

Life expectancy at birth is a measure of the average number of years a person would expect to live based on contemporary mortality rates. For a particular area and time period, it is an estimate of the average number of years a newborn baby would survive if he or she experienced the age-specific mortality rates for that area and time period throughout his or her life.

The SII for England and for regions have been presented alongside the local authority figures in order to improve the display of the indicators on the overview page. However, they should not be considered as comparators for the local authority figures. The SII for England takes account of the full range of deprivation and mortality across the whole country. This does not therefore provide a suitable benchmark with which to compare local authority results, which take into account the range of deprivation and mortality within much smaller geographies.

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During a late 2023 survey carried out among working-age consumers from the United Kingdom (UK), roughly ** percent of respondents stated they wanted brands to represents poverty and inequality in their messaging. Climate change ranked second, name by **** percent of respondents.

This record for the Dataset from the Work Package 1 (Mapping Anti-Gender Discourses in Media and Parliamentary Debates) of the RESIST Project has been created in the Zenodo open repository, in line with the RESIST Project’s Data Management Plan, and according to the framework of the Open Science principles of the European Union. We followed the accepted gold-standard rule: “as open as possible – as closed as necessarily” to ensure research ethics, integrity, and compliance with the research policies of the EU and the consortium members.

Data gathered during the Work Package 1 (Mapping Anti-Gender Discourses in Media and Parliamentary Debates) have been classified as SENSITIVE and therefore the dataset will not be available in open access repositories for ten years after the end of the project (that is until 01/10/2036). After 01/10/2036, if certain conditions outlined by the project consortium are met, the dataset will be released publicly on Zenodo.

Objective: This study explored the additive value of the multi-item EuroQol 5-Dimension 5-Level (EQ-5D-5L) as an outcome measure in health inequality analyses, relative to the single-item EuroQol visual analog scale (EQ VAS).Methods: A sample comprising the general population from Italy, the Netherlands, and United Kingdom (UK) completed the EQ-5D-5L and the EQ VAS. The level of education was selected as a proxy for socio-economic status (SES). EQ-5D-5L level sum scores (LSS) were compared against EQ VAS scores. Stratified and multivariable analyses were used to study the associations between SES and the LSS/EQ VAS relative to the presence of chronic health conditions.Results: A total of 10,172 people participated in this study. In the UK and Netherlands, the LSS was worst for respondents with a low educational level and better for respondents with middle and high educational levels. For Italy, the LSS was best for respondents with a middle educational level compared to respondents with low and high educational levels. The same patterns were observed for the EQ VAS, but differences were slightly smaller. Multivariable analyses showed generally stronger predictive relations in the UK, and with the LSS. The presence of chronic health conditions and being unable to work were independent strong predictors, canceling out the effects of education.Conclusions: In three different European countries, the EQ-5D measures show the presence of education-dependent health inequalities, which are universally explained in regression analysis by independently the presence of chronic health conditions and the inability to work. In stratified analysis, the EQ-5D-5L LSS discriminates slightly better between participants with different levels of SES compared to the EQ VAS.

Premature mortality exhibits strong spatial patterns in Great Britain. Local authorities that are located further North and West, that are more distant from its political centre London and that are more urban tend to have a higher premature mortality rate. Premature mortality also tends to cluster among geographically contiguous and proximate local authorities. We develop a novel analytical research design that relies on spatial pattern recognition to demonstrate that an empirical model that contains only socio-economic variables can eliminate these spatial patterns almost entirely. We demonstrate that socioeconomic factors across local authority districts explain 81 percent of variation in female and 86 percent of variation in male premature mortality in 2012–14. As our findings suggest, policy-makers cannot hope that health policies alone suffice to significantly reduce inequalities in health. Rather, it requires strong efforts to reduce the inequalities in socio-economic factors, or living conditions for short, in order to overcome the spatial disparities in health, of which premature mortality is a clear indication.

South Africa had the highest inequality in income distribution in 2024, with a Gini score of **. Its South African neighbor, Namibia, followed in second. The Gini coefficient measures the deviation of income (or consumption) distribution among individuals or households within a country from a perfectly equal distribution. A value of 0 represents absolute equality, and a value of 100 represents absolute inequality. All the 20 most unequal countries in the world were either located in Africa or Latin America & The Caribbean.

Multidimensional Poverty Headcount Ratio: UNDP: % of total population data was reported at 3.800 % in 2015. Multidimensional Poverty Headcount Ratio: UNDP: % of total population data is updated yearly, averaging 3.800 % from Dec 2015 (Median) to 2015, with 1 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 3.800 % in 2015 and a record low of 3.800 % in 2015. Multidimensional Poverty Headcount Ratio: UNDP: % of total population data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by World Bank. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Brazil – Table BR.World Bank.WDI: Social: Poverty and Inequality. The multidimensional poverty headcount ratio (UNDP) is the percentage of a population living in poverty according to UNDPs multidimensional poverty index. The index includes three dimensions -- health, education, and living standards.;Alkire, S., Kanagaratnam, U., and Suppa, N. (2023). ‘The global Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) 2023 country results and methodological note’, OPHI MPI Methodological Note 55, Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (OPHI), University of Oxford. (https://ophi.org.uk/mpi-methodological-note-55-2/);;

This research project investigated the relationships between care, inequalities and wellbeing among different generations of transnational families in the UK, Spain, France and Sweden.

‘Transnational families’ are family groups where one or more family members spend all or most of their time geographically separated across borders, but share a collective sense of connection as a ‘family’. This project established a new transnational interdisciplinary network across the four partner countries. The network built the capacity of migrants and practitioners through developing research skills and co-producing knowledge. It also built the capacity of early career and established academics through mutual learning in participatory and ethnographic approaches.

The consortium facilitated comparative research that is influencing policy and practice changes to improve the equality and wellbeing of migrant carers of different generations. The research has shown that transnational families simultaneously manage multiple caring responsibilities, both proximately for family members, and by caring at a distance for kin living in other countries. Families’ opportunities and access to social protection are shaped by intersecting inequalities based on legal status, nationality, race and ethnicity, disability/chronic illness, socio-economic status, language-related inequalities, gender and generation.

The physical and mental health, economic, social and emotional impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic were interlinked for migrants and led to the further marginalisation of transnational families, particularly those with insecure legal status and low socio-economic status. The deficits of migration and care regimes, alongside the absence of kin, create the need for children and youth to take on caring roles in transnational families. Children’s care work is often invisible, but may be crucial in enabling parents/relatives to fill gaps in care provision, facilitating access to public services through language and digital brokering. The accelerated shift towards digital technology becoming the primary gateway to access public services particularly affects older generations and those with low levels of literacy or language proficiency in the dominant societal language and increases the reliance on younger generations.

The research highlighted several barriers to accessing affordable, appropriate and high-quality language education provision. Negative impacts of caregiving were evidenced among middle and younger generations in terms of their education, employment and finances, family relationships, social participation, health and wellbeing. Such impacts could have significant implications for carers’ long term opportunities and wellbeing, especially among transnational families with high care needs who were already facing financial hardships and insecurity.

Policy recommendations focus on levelling out inequalities, expanding the definition of ‘family’ in reunification policies, recognising children’s care work in transnational families, making public services more accessible, welcoming and inclusive for migrant carers and their families.

The findings across the four countries have been published in an open access Report (Summary also available in French, Spanish and Swedish), 4 Policy Briefs and 11 academic articles to date, 13 accessible film outputs and disseminated through regional workshops, an international Symposium and professional networks. We guest-edited a special issue of Population, Space and Place journal on ‘Intergenerational care, inequalities and wellbeing among transnational families in Europe’, which includes 5 papers based on the findings.

Multidimensional Poverty Headcount Ratio: UNDP: % of total population data was reported at 3.600 % in 2017. Multidimensional Poverty Headcount Ratio: UNDP: % of total population data is updated yearly, averaging 3.600 % from Dec 2017 (Median) to 2017, with 1 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 3.600 % in 2017 and a record low of 3.600 % in 2017. Multidimensional Poverty Headcount Ratio: UNDP: % of total population data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by World Bank. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Indonesia – Table ID.World Bank.WDI: Social: Poverty and Inequality. The multidimensional poverty headcount ratio (UNDP) is the percentage of a population living in poverty according to UNDPs multidimensional poverty index. The index includes three dimensions -- health, education, and living standards.;Alkire, S., Kanagaratnam, U., and Suppa, N. (2023). ‘The global Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) 2023 country results and methodological note’, OPHI MPI Methodological Note 55, Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (OPHI), University of Oxford. (https://ophi.org.uk/mpi-methodological-note-55-2/);;

Supplementary files for article Long-term relatedness and income distribution: understanding the deep roots of inequalityThis article explores the role of long-term relatedness between countries, captured by an index of genetic distance, in driving worldwide differences in income inequality. The main hypothesis is that genetic distance gives rise to barriers to the international diffusion of redistributive policies and measures, and institutions, leading to greater income disparities. Using cross-country data, I consistently find that countries that are genetically distant to Denmark—the world frontier of egalitarian income distribution—tend to suffer from higher inequality, ceteris paribus. I also demonstrate that genetic distance is associated with greater bilateral differences in income inequality between countries. Employing data from the European Social Survey, I document that second-generation Europeans descending from countries with greater genetic distance to Denmark are less likely to exhibit positive attitudes towards equality. Further evidence suggests that effective fiscal redistribution is a key mechanism through which genetic distance to Denmark transmits to greater income inequality.

IntroductionHousing is a major influence on health. Housing tenure is associated with housing conditions, affordability, and security and is an important dimension of housing. In the UK there have been profound changes in both housing conditions and the distribution of households by tenure over the past century, that is during the lifetimes of the current population.MethodsWe firstly reviewed and summarise changes in housing conditions, housing policy and tenure distribution as they provide a context to possible explanations for health variations by housing tenure, including health related selection into different tenure types. We then use 2015-2021 data from a large nationally representative UK survey to analyse associations between housing tenure and self-reported disability among those aged 40-69 controlling for other socio-demographic factors also associated with health. We additionally examine changes in the association between housing tenure and self-reported disability in the population aged 25 and over in the first two decades of the 21st century and project trends forward to 2030.ResultsResults show that associations between housing tenure and disability by tenure were stronger than for any other indicator of socio-economic position considered with owner-occupiers having the best, and social renters the worst, health. Differences were particularly marked in reported mental health conditions and in economic activity, with 28% of social renters being economically inactive due to health problems, compared with 4% of owner-occupiers. Rates of disability have increased over time, and become increasingly polarised by tenure. By 2020 the age standardised disability rate among tenants of social housing was over twice as high as that for owner occupiers, with projections indicating further increases in both levels, and differentials in, disability by 2030.DiscussionThese results have substantial implications for housing providers, local authorities and for public health.