Russian estimates suggest that the total population of the Soviet Union in 1941 was 195.4 million people, before it fell to 170.5 million in 1946 due to the devastation of the Second World War. Not only did the USSR's population fall as a consequence of the war, but fertility and birth rates also dropped due to the disruption. Hypothetical estimates suggest that, had the war not happened and had fertility rates remained on their pre-war trajectory, then the USSR's population in 1946 would have been 39 million higher than in reality. Gender differences When it comes to gender differences, the Soviet male population fell from 94 million in 1941, to 74 million in 1946, and the female population fell from 102 to 96 million. While the male and female population fell by 19 and 5.5 million respectively, hypothetical estimates suggest that both populations would have grown by seven million each had there been no war. In actual figures, adult males saw the largest change in population due to the war, as a drop of 18 to 21 percent was observed across the three age groups. In contrast, the adult female population actually grew between 1941 and 1946, although the population under 16 years fell by a number similar to that observed in the male population due to the war's impact on fertility.

Due to the devastating impact of the Second World War on the Soviet population, the total population in 1950 was almost 15.5 million fewer than in 1940, which is a decrease of eight percent. In Russia (RSFSR), the largest of the Soviet states, the population difference was almost nine million people; also eight percent. It would take until 1955 for the populations of either the USSR or Russia to reach their pre-war levels, which was a decade after the conflict had ended. Urbanization Despite this drop in total population, industrialization and urbanization saw a significant change in the USSR's population distribution between the given years. The Soviet urban population increased by 6.3 million, or ten percent, between 1940 and 1950; 5.8 million of this was in Russia, which was a 15 percent increase. In contrast, the Soviet Union's rural population dropped by 21.8 million (a 17 percent change), 14.5 million of which in Russia (a decrease of 20 percent). In terms of overall population, the urban population of the USSR rose from 33 to 39 percent between 1940 and 1950, and from 34 to 43 percent in Russia. By 1955, 44 percent of the Soviet population, and 49 percent of the Russian population, lived in an urban setting.

Throughout the Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union had relatively similar total populations. The U.S.' population grew from around 205 million to almost 250 million people between 1970 and 1990, while the USSR's population grew from around 240 to 290 million in this time. In these years, the Soviet Union had the third largest population in the world, and the U.S. had the fourth largest (behind China and India respectively). Despite their similar sizes, these populations differed in terms of distribution as the U.S.' population was approximately three quarters urban in this period, whereas the Soviet Union's urban population was just 56 percent in 1970 and 66 percent in 1989. Additionally, the Soviet Union's population was much younger than that of the U.S. due to a higher birth rate and lower life expectancy.

Throughout the history of the Soviet Union, Russians were consistently the largest ethnic group in the USSR. Of a total population of 262 million people in 1979, the share who were Russian was over 137 million, which is equal to roughly 52 percent. In 1989, the total population of the Soviet Union was almost 286 million, with the ethnic Russian population at 145 million, or 51 percent. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Tatars were the only of the ten largest ethnic groups not to be given their own independent country, with Tatarstan instead becoming one of Russia's federal republics.

In Soviet Russia (RSFSR) in 1939 and 1959, ethnic Russians made up the largest share of the total population, with a share of approximately 83 percent. Tatars were the second largest ethnic group, followed by Ukrainians. Russians were consistently the largest ethnic group in the Soviet Union as a whole, with an overall share of 53 percent in 1979.

In 1970, over 29 percent of the Soviet population were under the age of 15, however this figure fell below 25 percent in the subsequent decade. This was offset by the 15-24 age group making up a larger share of the population in 1980, due to the cyclical nature of baby booms and higher birth rates when certain generations reach childbearing age.

The Soviet population structure was also greatly affected by the Second World War. The long-term impact meant that the age groups between 35 and 54 in 1970, i.e. those who were teens and young adults in the 1940s, made up a lower proportion of the population compared to traditional age distribution models. This was due to the heavy death toll experienced during the war, particularly among males.

Die Sowjet – Zählung von 1989 (Erhebung: 12. - 19. Januar 1989) war die letzte und auch kompletteste Zählung in der früheren UDSSR. Die folgende Version der Ergebnisse ist eine Zusammenfassung der Daten in Form von Excel – Tabellen, geordnet nach den zwölf Themenschwerpunkten der Originalversion, die als publizierte Original - Edition seit 1992 vorliegt. “The present publication is the CD-ROM version of the results of the 1989 USSR Population Census. As such, it contains the entire contents of the printed (microfiche) edition of this publication, which was first published in the latter half of 1992. The major change has been to transform all the data in the printed (microfiche) edition into a set of tables, or files. The CD-ROM edition presents the data in twelve subject areas, corresponding to each of the twelve original volumes in the printed (microfiche) edition. Each of the general subject areas is subdivided into a number of specific subjects, which in turn correspond to a unique table in the printed (microfiche) edition. Statistical and demographic data on general subject areas: Vol. 1 Statistical and demographic data on; Vol. 2 Population Size and Distribution; Vol. 3 Age and Marital Status; Vol. 4 Family/Household Size and Structure; Vol. 5 Number of Children born; Vol. 6 Housing Conditions; Vol. 7 Education Level; Vol. 8 Nationality Composition; Vol. 8 Means of Livelihood; Vol. 9 Social Composition; Vol. 10 Employment by Economic Sector; Vol. 11 Occupations; Vol. 12 Migration. The data may also be approached from the point of view of geographic unit. Geographic units are: Russia; Ukraine; Belarus; Moldova; Uzbekistan; Kazakhstan; Kyrgyzstan; Takikistan; Turkmenistan; Georgia; Azerbaijan; Armenia; Estonia; Latvia; Lithuania. Finally, the 1989 USSR Population Census data may also be approached from the point of view of nationality. Nationalities: approximately 130 nationalities” (East View (ed.), 1996: The 1989 USSR CENSUS. Minneapolis).

Throughout the later decades of the Soviet Union, there was a consistent imbalance in the ratio of men to women. This was not only due to the legacy of the Second World War (during which time the Soviet Union lost up to 27 million people, the majority of which were men), but also due to a much lower life expectancy among men in the Soviet Union in later years. This disparity has been attributed to high rates of alcoholism and accidental deaths, which was exacerbated by economic difficulties in the final decades of the 20th century. In 1970, there were almost 20 million more women in the USSR than men, with each gender making up 54 and 46 percent of the population respectively. Natural births gradually offset the population imbalance created by the war (as the natural gender ratio at birth is generally 105 boys for every 100 girls born), and men made up over 47 percent of the population in 1989, however the gender imbalance and lower life expectancy among males remains a persistent problem across Russia and other former-Soviet states to this day.

Representative samples of populations in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. This is our follow-up survey (from 2014) in the three Baltic countries but without additional sampling of their respective Russian speaking minorities. Special focus is on the handling of the covid pandemic in the Baltic countries, but the survey also covers attitudes towards the EU, migration, democracy, and Russia against the backdrop of its aggression in Ukraine. Representativa urval av befolkningen i Estland, Lettland och Litauen. Detta är vår uppföljande undersökning (från 2014) i de tre baltiska länderna, men denna gång utan ytterligare urval från de rysktalande minoriteterna i respektive land. Särskilt fokus ligger på hanteringen av covid-pandemin i de baltiska länderna, men undersökningen omfattar även attityder till EU, migration, demokrati samt Ryssland mot bakgrund av landets aggression i Ukraina.

The geographic information system (GIS) is based on the first and only Russian Imperial Census of 1897 and the First All-Union Census of the Soviet Union of 1926. The GIS features vector data (shapefiles) of allprovinces of the two states. For the 1897 census, there is information about linguistic, religious, and social estate groups. The part based on the 1926 census features nationality. Both shapefiles include information on gender, rural and urban population. The GIS allows for producing any necessary maps for individual studies of the period which require the administrative boundaries and demographic information.

The Second World War had a profound impact on gender ratios within the Soviet Union's population, and its effect on different age groups varied greatly. The Soviet population structure had already been shaped heavily by the First World War, the Russian Revolution, and the famines of the early 1920s and early 1930s. The impact of these events on mortality and fertility meant that, in 1941, the generations whose births corresponded with these events had a lower population than would be expected on a typical population model. For example, in 1941, those aged between 5 and 9 had a significantly lower population than those aged 10 to 14, due to the effects of the Soviet famine of 1932-1933. Additionally, women outnumbered men in all age groups except the very youngest, due to the disproportionate effect of conflict and infant mortality on male populations. Impact of WWII In order to observe the impact of the war, one must compare populations of specific age groups in 1941 with the following age group in 1946. For men of "fighting age" in 1941, i.e. those aged between 15 and 44, these populations experience the most substantial decrease over the course of the war. For example, there are 5.6 million men aged 15-19 in 1941, but just 3.5 million aged 20-24 in 1946, giving a decrease of 38 percent. This decrease of almost forty percent can be observed until the 45-49 group, where the difference is 25 percent. Additionally, women aged between 15 and 34 saw a disproportionate decrease in their populations over this period, as many enlisted in the army and took an active part in the conflict, most notably as medics, snipers, and pilots.

The war's impact on fertility and child mortality meant that, in 1946, the total population under four years old was less than half its size in 1941. Generally, variations between age groups then fluctuated in line with pre-war patterns, however the overall ratio of women to men increased further after the war. For all age groups over 20 years, the number of men decreased between these years, whereas all women's age groups over 30 years saw an increase; this meant that, despite the war, women over 30 had a higher life expectancy in 1946.

This data collection consists of information on the physical, geographical, and demographic characteristics of 17 Asian states in the period 1956-1968. Data are provided for the geographical area of the states, the percentage of the states' populations that were Chinese, and the air distance between the Asian states' capitals and the United States, Communist China, Soviet Union, France, and Great Britain.

In more than a decade of research on fertility in the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union, the Office of Population Research at Princeton University has assembled a large inventory of quantitative information. Some of the data from early years are handwritten; others exist only in computer printouts. Much of the material was not included in published results for one reason or another. For the convenience of other researchers interested in the population of Russia, selected primary data have been put in machine-readable form.

Over the course of the Second World War, approximately 44.5 percent of the Soviet population and 8.7 of Soviet territory was occupied by the Axis forces at some point. Despite being allied in the war's early stages, with both countries invading Poland in 1939 via the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, Germany would launch Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the USSR, in 1941, which would become the largest military invasion in history. Movement of the Eastern Front The surprise invasion began on June 22, and Axis forces caught the Soviets off-guard, quickly pushing their way eastward along a frontline that stretched from the Baltic to Black seas. The length of the front-line allowed Axis forces to execute pincer movements around cities and strongholds, which cut off large numbers of Soviet soldiers from their supply lines, as well as preventing reinforcements; in this process millions of Soviet troops were taken as prisoner. Within three weeks, the Germans had taken much of present-day Poland, Belarus, and the Baltic states, before taking Moldova and Ukraine in September, and pushing into western Russia between September and December. The front lines had reached the outskirts of Moscow by November, before exhaustion and cold weather helped Soviet forces hold the line and stall the German offensive. The Red Army was then able to regroup and turning the Germans' own tactics against them, using two-pronged attacks to encircle large numbers of troops, although harsh weather made this stage of the conflict much slower.

The lines remained fairly static until mid-1942, when the Germans focused their offensive on the south, concentrating on the Caucasian oil fields and the Volga River. By November 1942, Axis forces had pushed into these regions, establishing what would ultimately be the largest amount of occupied Soviet territory during the war. Once again, winter halted the Axis advance, and allowed the Red Army to regroup. Learning from the previous year, the Axis command strengthened their forces near Moscow in anticipation of the Soviet counter-offensive, but were caught off-guard by a second counter-offensive in the south, most famously at Stalingrad. The Battle of Stalingrad would come to epitomize the extreme loss, destruction, and brutality of war on the eastern front, with conflict continuing in the city months after the rest of the Axis forces had been pushed west. As 1943 progressed, the Red Army gained momentum by targeting inferiorly-trained and equipped non-German regiments. The spring then became something of a balancing act for the Axis powers, as the Soviets consistently attacked weak points, and German regiments were transferred to reinforce these areas. In the summer of 1943, the front line was static once more, however the momentum was with the Soviets, who were able to capitalize on victories such as Kursk and gradually force the Axis powers back. By 1944, the Red Army had re-captured much of Ukraine, and had re-taken the south by the summer. When the Western Allies arrived in France in June, the Soviets were already pushing through Ukraine and Belarus, towards Berlin. In August 1944, the last Axis forces were pushed out of Soviet territory, and Soviet forces continued their push towards the German capital, which fell in May 1945. Soviet death toll In addition to the near-five million Soviet troops who died during Operation Barbarossa, millions of civilians died through starvation, areal bombardment, forced labor, and systematic murder campaigns. Due to the nature and severity of Soviet losses, total figures are difficult to estimate; totals of 15-20 million civilians and 7-9 million military deaths are most common. Further estimates suggest that the disruption to fertility, in addition to the high death toll, meant that the USSR's population in 1946 was 40 million lower than it would have been had there been no war.

Abstract copyright UK Data Service and data collection copyright owner.

Using representative surveys of the entire population, this research project analysed the similarities and differences between Soviet and Russian household behaviour in the informal economy during 1996-1999. The research was based primarily on unpublished archive material - Soviet family budget surveys - for the Soviet period, and regular Russian household/ adult surveys for the post-Soviet period. In particular, the project estimated and compared the size, dynamics and determinants of household behaviour in the informal economy in the two periods, and also assessed the impact of household informal economy activities on the Soviet or current Russian economy.
The continuous Soviet annual family budget survey (FBS), covering the entire population of the USSR was conducted from the early 1950s onwards under the auspices of the Soviet Central Statistical Administration. Comprehensive and detailed summary results of annual data from the family budget surveys of Soviet households aggregated by types of heads of households such as workers and state employees and collective farm workers are kept in three Russian archives. This dataset was created using some of the results from the FBS.
Main Topics:

Data are aggregated by types of heads of households (or social classes in Russian terminology), and include 35 income variables, 62 expenditure-related variables and nine savings-related variables. Each variable on the income side shows the sources of income (the state, collective farms, and other people) and each variable on the expenditure side shows to whom payment was made (the state sector, collective farms, or other people). In total, eight data files have been created:
Russian workers and state employees' families (1969-1990),
Russian collective farm ('kolkhoz') workers' families (1969-1990),
Russian pure pensioners' families who retired from jobs relating to workers and state employees (1977-1990),
Russian pure pensioners' families who retired from jobs relating to collective farms (1977-1990),
Russian state farms ('sovkhoz') workers' families (1977-1990),
Average family in the Soviet Union as a whole (1979-1990),
Soviet workers and state employees' families (1969-1990),
Soviet collective farm workers' families (1969-1990).

This data set consists of roads, drainage, railroads, utilities, and population center information in readily usable vector format for the land area of the Former Soviet Union. The purpose of this dataset was to create a completely intact vector layer which could be readily used to aid in mapping efforts for the area of the FSU. These five vector data layers were assembled from the Digital Chart of the World (DCW), 1993. Individual record attributes were stored for population centers only. Vector maps for the FSU are in ArcView shapefile format.

International migrant stock is the number of people born in a country other than that in which they live. It also includes refugees. The data used to estimate the international migrant stock at a particular time are obtained mainly from population censuses. The estimates are derived from the data on foreign-born population--people who have residence in one country but were born in another country. When data on the foreign-born population are not available, data on foreign population--that is, people who are citizens of a country other than the country in which they reside--are used as estimates. After the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991 people living in one of the newly independent countries who were born in another were classified as international migrants. Estimates of migrant stock in the newly independent states from 1990 on are based on the 1989 census of the Soviet Union. For countries with information on the international migrant stock for at least two points in time, interpolation or extrapolation was used to estimate the international migrant stock on July 1 of the reference years. For countries with only one observation, estimates for the reference years were derived using rates of change in the migrant stock in the years preceding or following the single observation available. A model was used to estimate migrants for countries that had no data.

As of January 1, 2025, more than 146 million people were estimated to be residing on the Russian territory, down approximately 30,000 from the previous year. From the second half of the 20th century, the population steadily grew until 1995. Furthermore, the population size saw an increase from 2009, getting closer to the 1995 figures. In which regions do most Russians live? With some parts of Russia known for their harsh climate, most people choose regions which offer more comfortable conditions. The largest share of the Russian population, or 40 million, reside in the Central Federal District. Moscow, the capital, is particularly populated, counting nearly 13 million residents. Russia’s population projections Despite having the largest country area worldwide, Russia’s population was predicted to follow a negative trend under both low and medium expectation forecasts. Under the low expectation forecast, the country’s population was expected to drop from 146 million in 2022 to 134 million in 2036. The medium expectation scenario projected a milder drop to 143 million in 2036. The issues of low birth rates and high death rates in Russia are aggravated by the increasing desire to emigrate among young people. In 2023, more than 20 percent of the residents aged 18 to 24 years expressed their willingness to leave Russia.

Sweden SE: International Migrant Stock: % of Population data was reported at 16.768 % in 2015. This records an increase from the previous number of 14.761 % for 2010. Sweden SE: International Migrant Stock: % of Population data is updated yearly, averaging 11.890 % from Dec 1990 (Median) to 2015, with 6 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 16.768 % in 2015 and a record low of 9.216 % in 1990. Sweden SE: International Migrant Stock: % of Population data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by World Bank. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Sweden – Table SE.World Bank.WDI: Population and Urbanization Statistics. International migrant stock is the number of people born in a country other than that in which they live. It also includes refugees. The data used to estimate the international migrant stock at a particular time are obtained mainly from population censuses. The estimates are derived from the data on foreign-born population--people who have residence in one country but were born in another country. When data on the foreign-born population are not available, data on foreign population--that is, people who are citizens of a country other than the country in which they reside--are used as estimates. After the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991 people living in one of the newly independent countries who were born in another were classified as international migrants. Estimates of migrant stock in the newly independent states from 1990 on are based on the 1989 census of the Soviet Union. For countries with information on the international migrant stock for at least two points in time, interpolation or extrapolation was used to estimate the international migrant stock on July 1 of the reference years. For countries with only one observation, estimates for the reference years were derived using rates of change in the migrant stock in the years preceding or following the single observation available. A model was used to estimate migrants for countries that had no data.; ; United Nations Population Division, Trends in Total Migrant Stock: 2008 Revision.; Weighted average;

Sao Tome and Principe ST: International Migrant Stock: % of Population data was reported at 1.258 % in 2015. This records a decrease from the previous number of 1.580 % for 2010. Sao Tome and Principe ST: International Migrant Stock: % of Population data is updated yearly, averaging 2.712 % from Dec 1990 (Median) to 2015, with 6 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 4.915 % in 1990 and a record low of 1.258 % in 2015. Sao Tome and Principe ST: International Migrant Stock: % of Population data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by World Bank. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Sao Tome and Principe – Table ST.World Bank: Population and Urbanization Statistics. International migrant stock is the number of people born in a country other than that in which they live. It also includes refugees. The data used to estimate the international migrant stock at a particular time are obtained mainly from population censuses. The estimates are derived from the data on foreign-born population--people who have residence in one country but were born in another country. When data on the foreign-born population are not available, data on foreign population--that is, people who are citizens of a country other than the country in which they reside--are used as estimates. After the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991 people living in one of the newly independent countries who were born in another were classified as international migrants. Estimates of migrant stock in the newly independent states from 1990 on are based on the 1989 census of the Soviet Union. For countries with information on the international migrant stock for at least two points in time, interpolation or extrapolation was used to estimate the international migrant stock on July 1 of the reference years. For countries with only one observation, estimates for the reference years were derived using rates of change in the migrant stock in the years preceding or following the single observation available. A model was used to estimate migrants for countries that had no data.; ; United Nations Population Division, Trends in Total Migrant Stock: 2008 Revision.; Weighted average;