The two countries with the greatest shares of the world's Jewish population are the United States and Israel. The United States had been a hub of Jewish immigration since the nineteenth century, as Jewish people sought to escape persecution in Europe by emigrating across the Atlantic. The Jewish population in the U.S. is largely congregated in major urban areas, such as New York, Los Angeles, and Chicago, with the New York metropolitan area being the city with the second largest Jewish population worldwide, after Tel Aviv, Israel. Israel is the world's only officially Jewish state, having been founded in 1948 following the first Arab-Israeli War. While Jews had been emigrating to the holy lands since the nineteenth century, when they were controlled by the Ottoman Empire, immigration increased rapidly following the establishment of the state of Israel. Jewish communities in Eastern Europe who had survived the Holocaust saw Israel as a haven from persecution, while the state encouraged immigration from Jewish communities in other regions, notably the Middle East & North Africa. Smaller Jewish communities remain in Europe in countries such as France, the UK, and Germany, and in other countries which were hotspots for Jewish migration in the twentieth century, such as Canada and Argentina.

This statistic shows the top 25 countries in the world with the largest number of Jewish population in 2010. In 2010, there were living about 5.7 million Jews in the United States.

The world's Jewish population has had a complex and tumultuous history over the past millennia, regularly dealing with persecution, pogroms, and even genocide. The legacy of expulsion and persecution of Jews, including bans on land ownership, meant that Jewish communities disproportionately lived in urban areas, working as artisans or traders, and often lived in their own settlements separate to the rest of the urban population. This separation contributed to the impression that events such as pandemics, famines, or economic shocks did not affect Jews as much as other populations, and such factors came to form the basis of the mistrust and stereotypes of wealth (characterized as greed) that have made up anti-Semitic rhetoric for centuries. Development since the Middle Ages The concentration of Jewish populations across the world has shifted across different centuries. In the Middle Ages, the largest Jewish populations were found in Palestine and the wider Levant region, with other sizeable populations in present-day France, Italy, and Spain. Later, however, the Jewish disapora became increasingly concentrated in Eastern Europe after waves of pogroms in the west saw Jewish communities move eastward. Poland in particular was often considered a refuge for Jews from the late-Middle Ages until the 18th century, when it was then partitioned between Austria, Prussia, and Russia, and persecution increased. Push factors such as major pogroms in the Russian Empire in the 19th century and growing oppression in the west during the interwar period then saw many Jews migrate to the United States in search of opportunity.

Throughout history, the displacement and migration of Jewish populations has been a repeating theme. In ancient times, the worlds Jewish population was concentrated in the Middle East, especially around Judaism's spiritual homeland in present-day Israel. However, the population distribution of the world's Jewry began to shift in the Middle Ages, with an increasing share living in Europe. Initially, Western Europe (particularly France, Italy, and Spain) had the largest Jewish populations, before they then migrated eastward in later centuries. Between the 18th and mid-20th centuries, over half of the worl'd Jews lived in Europe, with over 80 percent of these living in Eastern Europe.

Poland had become a refuge for Jews fleeing persecution in the Middle Ages, although shifting borders and foreign influence meant that long-term security was never fully attained, and a series of pogroms in the Russian Empire in the 1800s, and rising anti-Semitism in Central Europe in the early-1900s contributred to waves of migration to the United States and Israel during this time. After the Holocaust saw the genocide of up to six million Jews (over one third of the world's Jewish population), the share of Jews living in Europe dropped drastically, and emmigration outside of Europe increased. Today, the United States has the world's largest Jewish population in the world at around 7.3 million people, just ahead of Israel with 7.1 million.

The Jewish School Study was undertaken to determine the advantages and disadvantages of different forms of Jewish education, how Jewish day schools are formed and organized, how Jewish schools contribute to the maintenance of continuity of a 400-year tradition, how adolescent Jews develop their identity, and what role religious education plays in this development. Questions also asked how Jewish adolescents and their parents participate in Jewish life, express their feelings about being Jewish, the role of spirituality in their lives, how they learn about Jewish life, and their relationship/ties with Israel and the Jewish people. Part 1, the Parent Survey, asked parents of students in Jewish schools about the financial costs of religious education, their religious background, Jewish religious practices of their household, as well as their own religious beliefs and spirituality. The survey also sought answers to questions on the parents' reasons for their choice of Jewish school, how involved and in what ways they were involved in their child's school and education, their involvement in the Jewish community, their level of knowledge on various subjects related to Judaism, and their opinions on their own parenting. Other information collected included marital status, income, family status, family origins, education, and employment. Part 2, the Student Survey, asked students about their religious background, the religious practices and experiences in their household, and their own Jewish practices. Students were then asked about how they spent their free time on Saturdays and weekdays, how they and their parents felt about being Jewish, and what types of rules their parents had for them. Additionally, students were queried about their values, friends, and future plans; knowledge of various subjects relating to Judaism; and their opinions of their school, teachers, and their own academic performance. Background information collected included gender, grade in school, name and types of schools attended, household composition, language spoken in the home, and parents' education and employment. Part 3, the Teacher Survey, asked teachers about the settings they worked in and the salary and benefits of those positions. Respondents also were asked about the classes they taught, the use of various teaching methods and media, and their roles and responsibilities. The survey also asked the teachers about their training and professional development, their perceptions and attitudes about their school, parental involvement, resources and facilities, and school goals. Additionally, teachers were asked about their religious background, Jewish religious practices of their own households, and their personal religious beliefs and spirituality. Background information collected included type of postsecondary education, gender, age, place of birth, marital status, income, and future career plans.

In 2020, Mexico had a Jew population of ****** people. More than a third of that population lived in Mexico State by that time. Mexico City had almost ****** Jewish people in this same year.

In 1995, Israel had a Jewish population of approximately 4.5 million people, of whom approximately 1.75 million were born abroad. Over one million of these immigrants were born in Europe, with over 650,000 of these born in the former Soviet Union. Despite Poland having the largest Jewish population in the world in the pre-WWII years, the number of Polish Jewish migrants and descendents in Israel was relatively small in 1995 when compared to the USSR due to the impact of the Holocaust.

Outside of Europe, Morocco had the largest number of Jewish immigrants and descendents in Israel by 1995. Morocco had the largest Jewish population in the Muslim world when Israel was founded in 1948, with over 250,000 people. Many Moroccan Jews sought to emigrate to Israel at this time, but often faced resistance from authorities and local populations who believed the Jews would join in the fight against the Arab forces seeking to establish a Muslim state in Palestine. The government of Morocco then officially prohibited emigration to Israel after gaining independence from France in 1956, however this policy was reversed in 1961 whereby the Moroccan government began facilitating Jewish emigration to Israel in return for payments from Jewish organizations in the U.S. and Israel. By the 1970s, Morocco's Jewish population had fallen to less than 15 percent of its size in 1948.

Jews were the dominant religious group in the Israel-Palestine region at the beginning of the first millennia CE, and are the dominant religious group there today, however, there was a period of almost 2,000 years where most of the world's Jews were displaced from their spiritual homeland. Antiquity to the 20th century Jewish hegemony in the region began changing after a series of revolts against Roman rule led to mass expulsions and emigration. Roman control saw severe persecution of Jewish and Christian populations, but this changed when the Byzantine Empire adopted Christianity as its official religion in the 4th century. Christianity then dominated until the 7th century, when the Rashidun Caliphate (the first to succeed Muhammad) took control of the Levant. Control of region split between Christians and Muslims intermittently between the 11th and 13th centuries during the Crusades, although the population remained overwhelmingly Muslim. Zionism until today Through the Paris Peace Conference, the British took control of Palestine in 1920. The Jewish population began growing through the Zionist Movement after the 1880s, which sought to establish a Jewish state in Palestine. Rising anti-Semitism in Europe accelerated this in the interwar period, and in the aftermath of the Holocaust, many European Jews chose to leave the continent. The United Nations tried facilitating the foundation of separate Jewish and Arab states, yet neither side was willing to concede territory, leading to a civil war and a joint invasion from seven Arab states. Yet the Jews maintained control of their territory and took large parts of the proposed Arab territory, forming the Jewish-majority state of Israel in 1948, and acheiving a ceasefire the following year. Over 750,000 Palestinians were displaced as a result of this conflict, while most Jews from the Arab eventually fled to Israel. Since this time, Israel has become one of the richest and advanced countries in the world, however, Palestine has been under Israeli military occupation since the 1960s and there are large disparities in living standards between the two regions.

Kosher Beef Market Outlook

The global kosher beef market size was estimated to be approximately USD 8 billion in 2023 and is projected to reach around USD 12.7 billion by 2032, growing at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 5.1% during the forecast period. The growth of the kosher beef market can be attributed to rising consumer awareness about the benefits of kosher food, which is perceived as being cleaner, healthier, and adhering to stricter quality standards compared to conventional food products. This perception has led to an increase in demand not only among Jewish consumers but also among non-Jewish consumers who are interested in the perceived health benefits and quality assurance that kosher certifications provide.

One of the primary growth factors in the kosher beef market is the increasing demand for high-quality, ethically sourced meat products. Kosher beef meets strict dietary laws and is slaughtered using humane practices, which appeal to a growing number of consumers who are concerned about animal welfare. Furthermore, kosher meat is subject to rigorous inspection and quality checks, providing an added layer of safety and assurance to consumers. This has attracted health-conscious and ethically-minded consumers, expanding the market beyond its traditional Jewish demographic. As consumers globally become more discerning about their food sources, the demand for kosher beef is expected to continue to rise.

Another significant growth factor is the expanding global Jewish population, which inherently drives the demand for kosher products. As the Jewish community grows, particularly in regions like North America and certain parts of Europe, there is a corresponding increase in the demand for kosher foods, including beef. Additionally, the market is further bolstered by cultural and religious practices that necessitate the consumption of kosher foods during Jewish holidays and special occasions. This cultural significance helps sustain the market demand throughout the year, contributing to steady growth prospects for kosher beef producers and retailers.

The rising popularity of specialty diets and the trend towards diverse culinary experiences are also contributing to the growth of the kosher beef market. Consumers are increasingly exploring different food cultures and cuisines, with kosher foods being a part of this trend. Kosher beef, known for its unique preparation and taste, is becoming an attractive choice for food enthusiasts and culinary professionals alike. This is particularly evident in urban areas with diverse demographics, where kosher beef has found its way into gourmet restaurants and specialty foodservice establishments. As a result, the culinary appeal of kosher beef is playing a significant role in expanding its market reach.

The concept of Halal Meat, much like kosher, is rooted in religious dietary laws and has seen a surge in demand globally. Halal meat adheres to Islamic dietary guidelines, ensuring that the meat is not only permissible but also prepared in a manner that is humane and ethical. This includes specific slaughtering practices and a focus on cleanliness and purity. The growing Muslim population worldwide, along with increased awareness among non-Muslim consumers about the ethical and health benefits of halal meat, has contributed to its rising popularity. As consumers become more conscious of their food sources and ethical considerations, the demand for halal meat is expected to continue its upward trajectory, paralleling the growth seen in the kosher market.

From a regional perspective, North America holds a significant share of the kosher beef market, driven by a large Jewish population and a high level of consumer awareness about kosher foods. The United States, in particular, boasts a well-established kosher food industry, which continuously innovates to meet the diverse dietary needs of its population. In contrast, regions like Asia Pacific are witnessing a surge in demand owing to increasing globalization and the spread of Jewish culture and cuisine. Markets in Europe and the Middle East & Africa are also expected to experience growth, albeit at a slower pace, as awareness and availability of kosher products increase. Latin America, while traditionally less exposed to kosher foods, presents untapped potential for growth as consumer preferences evolve.

Product Type Analysis

In the kosher beef market, product type plays a critical role, with fresh, frozen, and processed kosher beef being the prim

Kosher Frozen Meals Market Outlook

As per our latest research, the global kosher frozen meals market size reached USD 13.8 billion in 2024, with a robust year-on-year growth fueled by increasing demand for convenient, healthy, and culturally compliant food options. The market is expected to expand at a CAGR of 7.1% from 2025 to 2033, with the forecasted market size projected to reach USD 25.5 billion by 2033. This growth trajectory is primarily driven by rising consumer awareness regarding kosher dietary standards, the proliferation of diverse frozen meal offerings, and the expanding global Jewish population, alongside growing interest from non-Jewish consumers seeking perceived health and quality benefits associated with kosher-certified foods.

One of the most significant growth factors for the kosher frozen meals market is the increasing consumer preference for convenience without compromising on dietary compliance or quality. Urbanization and busier lifestyles have led to a surge in demand for ready-to-eat and easy-to-prepare meal solutions. Kosher frozen meals, which adhere to strict preparation and ingredient standards, are particularly attractive to health-conscious consumers and those with dietary restrictions. The market is also benefiting from the expanding range of product offerings, including entrees, appetizers, sides, and desserts, catering to a variety of tastes and dietary requirements. This diversification is further supported by advancements in food preservation technology, which ensures that frozen meals retain both nutritional value and flavor, making them a viable alternative to freshly prepared kosher foods.

Another key driver is the growing global recognition and acceptance of kosher certification as a mark of quality and safety, even outside the Jewish community. Many consumers now perceive kosher-certified products as being subject to higher standards of cleanliness, ingredient sourcing, and preparation, which has broadened the market’s appeal. In regions such as North America and Europe, where food safety concerns and dietary transparency are paramount, kosher frozen meals are gaining traction among mainstream consumers. In addition, the rise in food allergies and sensitivities has prompted more individuals to seek out kosher products, which are often free from common allergens such as shellfish and certain additives, further expanding the potential customer base.

Digital transformation and the proliferation of e-commerce platforms have also played a pivotal role in the growth of the kosher frozen meals market. Online grocery shopping has surged in popularity, particularly in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, making it easier for consumers to access a wide variety of kosher frozen meal options. Retailers and manufacturers are leveraging digital channels to reach new customer segments, offer detailed product information, and facilitate hassle-free purchasing experiences. This shift towards online distribution is complemented by the expansion of specialty stores and dedicated kosher sections in supermarkets and hypermarkets, ensuring that consumers have greater access to these products both online and offline.

Regionally, North America remains the largest market for kosher frozen meals, accounting for over 38% of global revenue in 2024. This dominance is attributed to the sizeable Jewish population in the United States and Canada, well-established distribution networks, and high consumer awareness. Europe follows closely, driven by increasing multiculturalism and the presence of established kosher certification bodies. The Asia Pacific region is emerging as a high-growth market, with rising disposable incomes, urbanization, and growing interest in international cuisines contributing to increased demand for kosher frozen meals. Meanwhile, Latin America and the Middle East & Africa are witnessing steady growth, supported by expanding retail infrastructure and rising consumer interest in convenient and culturally compliant food options.

Product Type Analysis

The Holocaust was the systematic extermination of Europe's Jewish population in the Second World War, during which time, up to six million Jews were murdered as part of Nazi Germany's "Final Solution to the Jewish Question". In the context of the Second World War, the term "Holocaust" is traditionally used to reference the genocide of Europe's Jews, although this coincided with the Nazi regime's genocide and ethnic cleansing of an additional eleven million people deemed "undesirable" due to their ethnicity, beliefs, disability or sexuality (among others). During the Holocaust, Poland's Jewish population suffered the largest number of fatalities, with approximately three million deaths. Additionally, at least one million Jews were murdered in the Soviet Union, while Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, the Netherlands and Yugoslavia also lost the majority of their respective pre-war Jewish populations. The Holocaust in Poland In the interwar period, Europe's Jewish population was concentrated in the east, with roughly one third living in Poland; this can be traced back to the Middle Ages, when thousands of Jews flocked to Eastern Europe to escape persecution. At the outbreak of the Second World War, it is estimated that there were 3.4 million Jews living in Poland, which was approximately ten percent of the total population. Following the German invasion of Poland, Nazi authorities then segregated Jews in ghettos across most large towns and cities, and expanded their network of concentration camps throughout the country. In the ghettos, civilians were deprived of food, and hundreds of thousands died due to disease and starvation; while prison labor was implemented under extreme conditions in concentration camps to fuel the German war effort. In Poland, six extermination camps were also operational between December 1941 and January 1945, which saw the mass extermination of approximately 2.7 million people over the next three years (including many non-Poles, imported from other regions of Europe). While concentration camps housed prisoners of all backgrounds, extermination camps were purpose-built for the elimination of the Jewish race, and over 90% of their victims were Jewish. The majority of the victims in these extermination camps were executed by poison gas, although disease, starvation and overworking were also common causes of death. In addition to the camps and ghettos, SS death squads (Einsatzgruppen) and local collaborators also committed widespread atrocities across Eastern Europe. While the majority of these atrocities took place in the Balkan, Baltic and Soviet regions, they were still prevalent in Poland (particularly during the liquidation of the ghettos), and the Einsatzgruppen alone are estimated to have killed up to 1.3 million Jews throughout the Holocaust. By early 1945, Soviet forces had largely expelled the German armies from Poland and liberated the concentration and extermination camps; by this time, Poland had lost roughly ninety percent of its pre-war Jewish population, and suffered approximately three million further civilian and military deaths. By 1991, Poland's Jewish population was estimated to be just 15 thousand people, while there were fewer than two thousand Jews recorded as living in Poland in 2018.

With the heightened threat to Germany's Jewish population following the Nazi Party's ascent to power in 1933, many German Jews chose to flee or emigrate. In 1933, Germany's Jewish population was approximately 500,000 people; by the end of the war, it is estimated that 300,000 fled the country, and 165,000 were murdered in the Holocaust. In order to flee, most Jewish emigrants from Germany had to give up the majority of their wealth to the German state, whose emigration tax and seizure of property stripped Jews of their financial assets. Destination and transit For Germany's Jewish refugees, the most common destination country was the United States, and almost half of all these refugees would arrive in the U.S. over this 12 year period. As the United States had a strict quota of 27,000 German migrants per year, many refugees were forced to enter via other countries. France was the second most common destination country, receiving 100,000 refugees. However, France was also used as a transit country for German Jews wishing to travel further afield, especially after it was annexed by Germany in 1940. This was also true for several other European countries, such as the Netherlands, which had provided protection for German Jews in the mid-1930s, before rapidly becoming very unsafe following the outbreak of war in 1939. The Frank family Possibly the most famous example of this was the story of Anne Frank and her family. Anne had been born in Frankfurt, Germany in 1929, but her family moved to the Netherlands in 1934 after Hitler came to power. The family then led a relatively comfortable and successful life in Amsterdam, with her father, Otto, founding his own businesses. When the Netherlands was invaded by the Germans in 1940, the family tried to emigrate once more; Otto had been granted a single Cuban visa in 1942, but the family was forced to go into hiding as the restrictions tightened. For the next two years, with the help of non-Jewish friends, they lived in secret in the upper floor of Otto's business premises with several other Jewish refugees, in a small space concealed behind a bookcase. In August 1944, through unknown means, the group was betrayed and then arrested by Dutch authorities, and the Frank family was sent to Auschwitz-Birkenau thereafter. Anne's mother, Edith, died of starvation in Auschwitz within five months of her capture, while Anne and her sister, Margot, died one month later after being transferred to the Bergen-Belsen camp in Germany. Otto was the sole survivor of the group. Otto's secretary, Miep Gies, had saved Anne's diary the day after the group was arrested, which she then gave to Otto; he then devoted much of the remainder of his life to the publication and promotion of his daughter's diary, which has now become one of the most famous and widely-read books in recent history. Additionally, the hiding space is now open to the public, and has become one of the Netherlands' most popular tourist museums.

The Private School Universe Survey, 2003-04 (PSS 2003-04), is a study that is part of the Private School Universe program. PSS 2003-04 (https://nces.ed.gov/surveys/pss/) is a cross-sectional survey that collects data on private elementary and secondary schools, including religious orientation, level of school, length of school year, length of school day, total enrollment (K-12), race/ethnicity of students, number of high school graduates, number of teachers employed, program emphasis, and existence and type of kindergarten program. The study was conducted using mail questionnaires and telephone follow-up of all private schools in the United States. The PSS universe consists of a diverse population of schools. It includes both schools with a religious orientation (e.g., Catholic, Lutheran, or Jewish) and nonsectarian schools with programs ranging from regular to special emphasis and special education. The study's unweighted and weighted response rates were both 94 percent. Key statistics produced from PSS 2003-04 are on the growth of religiously affiliated schools, the number of private high school graduates, the length of the school year for various private schools, and the number of private school students and teachers.

Throughout the interwar period, Nazi leaders and propaganda repeatedly put forward the bogus claim that Jews owned up to 20 percent of all wealth in Germany, despite making up fewer than one percent of the population. At this time, Jews were used as a scapegoat for Germany's economic difficulties after the First World War and during the Great Depression, and the Nazis claimed that the Jews were lining their pockets at the expense of "Aryan" Germans. Unfortunately, there are no official figures for Jewish wealth in the 1930s, and emigration tax data only gives an insight into the finances of wealthier Jews. There are, however, a range of estimates from contemporary and more recent sources, which have been used to estimate the real share of German capital that was owned by Jews. Contemporary estimates At various points in the 1930s, the media, statistical office, and central bank all claimed that the combined wealth of German Jews was somewhere between two and 20 billion Reichsmarks (RM). While these three institutions were all state run under the Nazi regime, and despite their uncertainty, some of these estimates are still treated with consideration due to the credentials of the journalists, economists, and statisticians involved. Additionally, these figures were used with the purpose of identifying just how much money the state could take from the Jewish population, therefore it was of interest for the Nazi authorities to ascertain accurate figures, and not inflate estimates for propaganda purposes. Interestingly, the estimates from the Statistical office actually increased from 1933 to 1936, despite the fact that the state had already been seizing Jewish wealth and restricting Jewish business on a large scale since 1933; this has been attributed to the economic impact of the Great Depression. Modern estimates The estimates from Junz and Ritschl were published in 2002 and 2019 respectively, and used some of the contemporary estimates in their investigation, while taking many additional factors into account. These are now some of the most widely-cited estimates on this subject, with estimates of around 8-16 billion RM in 1933, five billion RM in 1936, and 4.4 billion RM in 1938. In Ritschl's 2019 paper, he then goes on to estimate the share of total German wealth owned by Jews; his results show that the Jewish share of private capital was slightly higher than the average, but was still very much in line with their population size.

De geïnterviewde vertelt over de Jodenvervolging in Rotterdam. Haar beste vriendin was joods en werd samen met de kinderen uit het joodse kinderziekenhuis weg gevoerd. Ze is hier getuige van geweest. Ze heeft eveneens het bombardement op Rotterdam gezien en ze zag hoe een Nederlands meisje door een Duitse soldaat werd verkracht.The interviewee talks about the persecution of the Jews in Rotterdam. Her best friend was Jewish and was deported, together with the children from the Jewish children’s hospital. The interviewee witnessed this. She also saw the bombardment of Rotterdam and saw a Dutch girl being raped by a German soldier. Date Submitted: 2010-04-01 Van dit interview zijn eveneens uitgebreide samenvattingen met tijd-codes beschikbaar in zowel het Nederlands als Engels. Zie de Inleiding voor een snel overzicht van de gehele collectie en de contactgegevens. Er zijn tevens verschillende bestanden bijgevoegd betreffende het project en dit specifieke interview.Besides the transcript there is an extensive summary available of the interview in both Dutch and English with time-codes inserted. See the Introduction for a quick overview of the entire collection and the contact details. There are also several documents and reports available concerning the project and this particular interview. Bystander Memories bevat in totaal 59 interviews met Nederlandse niet-joodse ooggetuigen van de jodenvervolging. Deze interviews vormen een onderdeel van een project uitgevoerd door het United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Oral History Department, waar het valt onder de 'Europe Interview Projects: Interviews with Witnesses, Collaborators, and Perpetrators'. Naast de Nederlandse interviews zijn er ook interviews gemaakt in het (Wit)Russisch, Grieks, Macedonisch, Pools, Oekraiens, Servisch, Ests, Lets, Litouws, Moldavisch, Frans, Duits, Roemeens. De aantallen interviews per land variëren sterk. Het project is in 1996 begonnen en loopt nog steeds, zie website USHMM: http://www.ushmm.org/research/collections/oralhistory/Since 1996, United States Holocaust memorial Museum's (USHMM) Department of Oral History has conducted a documentation project to collect the testimonies of individuals who were not direct victims of the Holocaust. These interviews are with witnesses, collaborators, and perpetrators. In ten years, over 600 interviews have been conducted in the following European countries: Czech Republic, Estonia, France, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, The Netherlands, Poland, Romania, the Ukraine, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Serbia. These interviews serve not only as corroboration of what Jewish victims and survivors report in their interviews and memoirs, they also create a broader understanding of the tragic events of World War II by adding the perspectives of non-Jewish populations. The Dutch interviews are accessible at DANS for scientific research only.

description: The Private School Universe Survey, 2015-16 (PSS 2015-16), is a study that is part of the Private School Universe program. PSS 2015-16 (https://nces.ed.gov/surveys/pss/) is a cross-sectional survey that collects data on private elementary and secondary schools, including religious orientation, level of school, length of school year, length of school day, total enrollment (K-12), race/ethnicity of students, number of high school graduates, number of teachers employed, program emphasis, and existence and type of kindergarten program. The study will be conducted using mail questionnaires, an internet response option and telephone and personal follow-up of all private schools in the United States. The PSS universe consists of a diverse population of schools. It includes both schools with a religious orientation (e.g., Catholic, Lutheran, or Jewish) and nonsectarian schools with programs ranging from regular to special emphasis and special education. Key statistics produced from PSS 2015-16 are on the number of private schools, students, and teachers, the number of high school graduates, the length of the school year and school day.; abstract: The Private School Universe Survey, 2015-16 (PSS 2015-16), is a study that is part of the Private School Universe program. PSS 2015-16 (https://nces.ed.gov/surveys/pss/) is a cross-sectional survey that collects data on private elementary and secondary schools, including religious orientation, level of school, length of school year, length of school day, total enrollment (K-12), race/ethnicity of students, number of high school graduates, number of teachers employed, program emphasis, and existence and type of kindergarten program. The study will be conducted using mail questionnaires, an internet response option and telephone and personal follow-up of all private schools in the United States. The PSS universe consists of a diverse population of schools. It includes both schools with a religious orientation (e.g., Catholic, Lutheran, or Jewish) and nonsectarian schools with programs ranging from regular to special emphasis and special education. Key statistics produced from PSS 2015-16 are on the number of private schools, students, and teachers, the number of high school graduates, the length of the school year and school day.

According to a survey conducted in 2022, ** percent of Jewish Americans said that they made 100,000 U.S. dollars or more in the United States. In comparison, ** percent of Muslim Americans said that they made less than 30,000 U.S. dollars.

As early as 1319, allegations of well-poisoning had been levelled at leper communities in Europe, in an attempt to demonize and ostracize this group in society. In France and Spain in 1321, the "leper's plot" developed into a widespread conspiracy, claiming that leper communities were acting on the orders of the Jews or Spanish Moors, poisoning water supplies in an attempt to spread disease among Christians. Under royal decrees, many lepers were then tortured into confessing to these acts, and were subsequently burnt at the stake (although this was often carried out by vigilante mobs before it could be done by the courts). After the initial hysteria in 1321, the involvement of lepers was quickly dismissed, and a papal bull was introduced to grant protection to leper communities in France; this however did not dispel the myths surrounding the Jews' involvement in the conspiracy, and the issue emerged again a few decades later. Why the Jews were blamed When the bubonic plague made its way to Europe, many were eager to find a scapegoat on whom they could blame their misfortune. The "well-poisoning" accusations were quickly raised again against Jewish communities in France and Spain, and also across the German states. Historians point to several reasons why Jews were blamed for the Black Death; many Jews lived in separate communities and did not use the same common wells, and Jewish religious practices promote bathing and hand-washing; both of these factors meant that the plague spread differently and at a different rate among Jews than it did among the general population. Modern historians also point to the fact that Jews were often moneylenders, and their debtors often used the plague as an opportunity to expunge their debts; Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV also forfeited the property of Jews who were killed in the pogroms, giving further impetus to these mobs. Anti-Jewish pogroms The first reported pogroms took place in Toulon in 1348, before the violence then spread across the rest of Western Europe. Over the next three years, hundreds of Jewish communities were attacked and exterminated, with the majority taking place in the German states. A number of larger communities, such as those in Cologne and Mainz, were destroyed completely, resulting in the deaths and forced conversions of thousands of Jews. Pope Clement VI introduced two papal bulls in 1348, which granted the church's protection to Europe's Jews. He also urged the clergy and nobility to take measures that protected Jews in their local areas, although most sources show that authorities were apathetic or complicit in the actions of the mobs. There is even evidence that authorities orchestrated several of the pogroms, such as in Strasbourg, where authorities led the city's Jewish community to a newly-built house outside the city, but when they arrived, any Jews who refused to convert to Christianity were then burned alive inside the house. Legacy Many of the sources present different versions of events, with death tolls ranging from one hundred to several thousand in some cases, while some sources also claim that Jews set fire to their own homes rather than convert. It is now impossible to confirm the exact sequence of events, or the actual number of deaths resulting from these pogroms, however, the limited sources available do provide a brief foundation for the modern understanding of medieval anti-Semitism and the destruction inflicted upon the Jews during the plague. It is also important to note that these pogroms were not unique to the Black Death's outbreak, and there is evidence of numerous massacres of Jewish communities in the centuries that followed. The demographic impact of the massacres was that there was a mass exodus of Jews from west to Eastern Europe, to countries such as Poland (where they were actually welcomed by authorities). The consequences of this demographic shift would be most felt six centuries later, when millions of Jews across Eastern Europe were exterminated at the hands of the Nazi regime during the Holocaust.

Europe's Jewish population in 1939 was around 9.5 million people, and it is estimated that six million of these were ultimately killed by 1945. The persecution of German Jews escalated during the interwar period, particularly after Hitler's ascent to power in 1933, and again after Kristallnacht in 1938. However, the scale of this increased drastically following the German invasions of Poland in 1939 and the USSR in 1941, when Germany annexed regions with some of the largest Jewish populations in Europe. Extermination Camps As part of the "Final Solution to the Jewish Question", the Nazi occupiers established six extermination camps in present-day Poland; these were Auschwitz-Birkenau, Belzec, Chelmno, Majdanek***, Sobibor, and Treblinka. Prisoners, mostly Jews, were transported from all over Europe to these camps. Upon arrival, the majority of victims were sent directly to purpose-built chambers or vans, where they were murdered with carbon monoxide or Zyklon B gas. A relatively small number of prisoners were also forced to dispose of the victims' bodies, which often included their own family members, friends, or persons known to them. Most of the deceased were incinerated, and many of the camp records were destroyed; this means that precise figures for the number of deaths in extermination camps will never be known. It has been estimated that at least 2.7 million Jews were murdered in these six camps; over two thirds of these were killed at Auschwitz or Treblinka. Einsatzgruppen After extermination camps, the most common method of murder was through mass shootings. The majority of these shootings were not carried out by regular soldiers, but specialized task forces known as "Einsatzgruppen". Each group was just a few hundred men each, but they were responsible for some of the largest individual acts of genocide in the war. The largest of these took place at Babi Yar, near Kyiv in 1941, where almost 35,000 victims were beaten, humiliated, and then shot over a two day period. The Einsatzgruppen were most active in the annexed Soviet territories (although additional regiments were active in Poland and the Balkans), and their ranks were often bolstered by local volunteers. It has been estimated that Einsatzgruppen were responsible for the genocide of more than two million people in fewer than six years.

Most estimates place the total number of deaths during the Second World War at around 70-85 million people. Approximately 17 million of these deaths (20-25 percent of the total) were due to crimes against humanity carried out by the Nazi regime in Europe. In comparison to the millions of deaths that took place through conflict, famine, or disease, these 17 million stand out due to the reasoning behind them, along with the systematic nature and scale in which they were carried out. Nazi ideology claimed that the Aryan race (a non-existent ethnic group referring to northern Europeans) was superior to all other ethnicities; this became the justification for German expansion and the extermination of others. During the war, millions of people deemed to be of lesser races were captured and used as slave laborers, with a large share dying of exhaustion, starvation, or individual execution. Murder campaigns were also used for systematic extermination; the most famous of these were the extermination camps, such as at Auschwitz, where roughly 80 percent of the 1.1 million victims were murdered in gas chambers upon arrival at the camp. German death squads in Eastern Europe carried out widespread mass shootings, and up to two million people were killed in this way. In Germany itself, many disabled, homosexual, and "undesirables" were also killed or euthanized as part of a wider eugenics program, which aimed to "purify" German society.

The Holocaust Of all races, the Nazi's viewed Jews as being the most inferior. Conspiracy theories involving Jews go back for centuries in Europe, and they have been repeatedly marginalized throughout history. German fascists used the Jews as scapegoats for the economic struggles during the interwar period. Following Hitler's ascendency to the Chancellorship in 1933, the German authorities began constructing concentration camps for political opponents and so-called undesirables, but the share of Jews being transported to these camps gradually increased in the following years, particularly after Kristallnacht (the Night of Broken Glass) in 1938. In 1939, Germany then invaded Poland, home to Europe's largest Jewish population. German authorities segregated the Jewish population into ghettos, and constructed thousands more concentration and detention camps across Eastern Europe, to which millions of Jews were transported from other territories. By the end of the war, over two thirds of Europe's Jewish population had been killed, and this share is higher still when one excludes the neutral or non-annexed territories.

Lebensraum Another key aspect of Nazi ideology was that of the Lebensraum (living space). Both the populations of the Soviet Union and United States were heavily concentrated in one side of the country, with vast territories extending to the east and west, respectively. Germany was much smaller and more densely populated, therefore Hitler aspired to extend Germany's territory to the east and create new "living space" for Germany's population and industry to grow. While Hitler may have envied the U.S. in this regard, the USSR was seen as undeserving; Slavs were the largest major group in the east and the Nazis viewed them as inferior, which was again used to justify the annexation of their land and subjugation of their people. As the Germans took Slavic lands in Poland, the USSR, and Yugoslavia, ethnic cleansings (often with the help of local conspirators) became commonplace in the annexed territories. It is also believed that the majority of Soviet prisoners of war (PoWs) died through starvation and disease, and they were not given the same treatment as PoWs on the western front. The Soviet Union lost as many as 27 million people during the war, and 10 million of these were due to Nazi genocide. It is estimated that Poland lost up to six million people, and almost all of these were through genocide.