In 2023, the average total fertility rate in Taiwan ranged at around **** children per woman over lifetime. This extremely low figure is not expected to increase over the coming years. Taiwan’s demographic development Taiwan was once known for its strong population growth. After the retreat of the Republican government to the island in 1949, the population grew quickly. However, during Taiwan’s rapid economic development thereafter, the fertility rate dropped substantially. This drastic change occurred in most East Asian countries as well, of which many have some of the lowest fertility rates in the world today. As a result, populations in many East Asian regions are already shrinking or are expected to do so soon.In Taiwan, population decreased in 2020 for the first time, and the declining trend is expected to accelerate in the years ahead. At the same time, life expectancy has increased considerably, and Taiwan’s population is now aging at fast pace, posing a huge challenge to the island’s social security net. Addressing challenges of an aging society Most east Asian countries could, until recently, afford generous public pensions and health care systems, but now need to adjust to their changing reality. Besides providing incentives to raise children, the Taiwanese government also tries to attract more immigrants by lowering requirements for permanent residency. As both strategies have been met with limited success, the focus remains on reforming the pension system. This is being done mainly by raising the retirement age, promoting late-age employment, increasing pension contributions, and lowering pension payments.

In 1900, the fertility rate in the region of present-day South Korea was six children per woman, meaning that the average woman born in South Korea in that year could expect to have six children over the course of their reproductive years. This number began to fluctuate in the 1930s, when the Japanese administration (the Korean peninsula had been annexed by Japan in 1910) promoted fertility as part of the war effort, before fertility dropped below 5.2 births per woman in the aftermath of the war. It then increased above 6.3 in the 1950s due to the devastation and mass-displacement caused by the Korean War. As stability returned to the region, South Korea's fertility rate would fall sharply throughout the remainder of the century, as modernization, urbanization, and the implementation of family planning programs would see fertility fall to just over 1.5 children per woman by 1990.

Sex-selective abortion and gender ratios Abortion was illegal in South Korea between 1953 and 2020, although it was permitted in some cases from 1973 onward. Despite this, these laws were rarely enforced, and sex-selective abortion became widespread following advancements in ultrasound technology. In many Asian societies, it was often preferred to have male children as they were viewed as being better long-term providers for their parents and they would carry on the family name. In South Korea in the early 1990s, the practice of sex-selective abortion became so widespread that the gender ratio at birth was 114 males for every 100 females (reportedly as high as 125 in some cities), compared to the historical and natural average of approximately 105 males per 100 females. The government then prohibited doctors from revealing the gender of unborn babies to the parents in 1987, and introduced more severe penalties in 1994, in an attempt to revert this trend. The gender imbalance then reduced in the following decades, and has been at 106 males per 100 females since the 2010s (roughly the natural average). Abortion rights in South Korea were expanded in 2021.

Lowest in the world? Despite government initiatives aimed at increasing fertility, including financial incentives, South Korea's fertility rate has continued to fall in recent years, and today is at around half of replacement level. In 2020, it is estimated that the average woman born in South Korea will have just over one child over the course of their reproductive years. Some critics cite economic factors, such as high education and housing costs, for the reason that young couples are postponing marriage and having families; today, South Korea has the lowest adolescent fertility rate, and the lowest overall fertility rate in the Asia Pacific region. Due to the current trajectory of South Korea's fertility rate, in January 2021, it was announced that the South Korean population experienced a natural decline for the first time in it's history.

In 1930, the average woman of childbearing age in Kenya would have had just under seven children over the course of their reproductive years. This rate would steadily increase until the end of the 1960s, peaking at just over eight children per woman in 1970. Following this peak, a combination of strong national and international promotion of family planning in Kenya and an expansion of contraceptive use would lead to a sharp decrease in the fertility rate, resulting in an average of 3.19 children in 2024. Teenage fertility in Kenya In 2022, most teenage pregnancies occurred among 19-year-olds. There is a strong correlation between adolescents who had ever been pregnant and those who had no education. Additionally, those who form part of the highest wealth quintile in the country were less likely to have ever been pregnant. Overall decreasing trends in Kenya’s fertility ratesAlthough fertility rates in Kenya have dropped considerably since 1989, the global fertility rate is significantly lower. Kenyans living in rural areas have a higher total fertility rate compared to those living in urban areas. This is reportedly due to differences in the level of education, the use of contraception, and the desire to live a quality life. Between 1995 and 2000, the decline in fertility rates in Kenya slowed somewhat, partly due to the government prioritizing and reallocating healthcare resources towards combatting the then-emerging HIV/AIDS epidemic. However, resources for contraceptives and family planning commenced once more around 2003, and as a result, the total fertility rate began to fall steadily again.

This map is adapted from the outstanding work of Dr. Joseph Kerski at ESRI. A map of political, social, and economic indicators for 2010. Created at the Data Analysis and Social Inquiry Lab at Grinnell College by Megan Schlabaugh, April Chen, and Adam Lauretig.Data from Freedom House, the Center for Systemic Peace, and the World Bank.Shapefile:Weidmann, Nils B., Doreen Kuse, and Kristian Skrede Gleditsch. 2010. The Geography of the International System: The CShapes Dataset. International Interactions 36 (1).Field Descriptions:

Variable Name Variable Description Years Available Further Description Source

TotPop Total Population 2011 Population of the country/region World Bank

GDPpcap GDP per capita (current USD) 2011 A measure of the total output of a country that takes the gross domestic product (GDP) and divides it by the number of people in the country. The per capita GDP is especially useful when comparing one country to another because it shows the relative performance of the countries. World Bank

GDPpcapPPP GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity (PPP) 2011

World Bank

HDI Human Development Index (HDI) 2011 A tool developed by the United Nations to measure and rank countries' levels of social and economic development based on four criteria: Life expectancy at birth, mean years of schooling, expected years of schooling and gross national income per capita. The HDI makes it possible to track changes in development levels over time and to compare development levels in different countries. World Bank

LifeExpct Life expectancy at birth 2011 The probable number of years a person will live after a given age, as determined by mortality in a specific geographic area. World Bank

MyrSchool Mean years of schooling 2011 Years that a 25-year-old person or older has spent in schools World Bank

ExpctSch Expected years of schooling 2011 Number of years of schooling that a child of school entrance age can expect to receive if prevailing patterns of age-specific enrolment rates persist throughout the child’s life. World Bank

GNIpcap Gross National Income (GNI) per capita 2011 Gross national income (GNI) is the sum of value added by all resident producers plus any product taxes (less subsidies) not included in the valuation of output plus net receipts of primary income (compensation of employees and property income) from abroad. GNI per capita is gross national income divided by mid-year population. World Bank

GNIpcapHDI GNI per capita rank minus HDI rank 2011

World Bank

NaIncHDI Nonincome HDI
2011

World Bank

15+LitRate Adult (15+) literacy rate (%). Total 2010

UNESCO

EmplyAgr Employment in Agriculture 2009

World Bank

GDPenergy GDP per unit of energy use 2010 The PPP GDP per kilogram of oil equivalent of energy use. World Bank

GDPgrowth GDP growth (annual %) 2011

World Bank

GDP GDP (current USD) 2011

World Bank

ExptGDP Exports of Goods and Service (% GDP) 2011 The value of all goods and other market services provided to the rest of the world World Bank

ImprtGDP Imports of Goods and Service (% GDP) 2011 The value of all goods and other market services received from the rest of the world. World Bank

AgrGDP Agriculture, Value added (% GDP) 2011 Agriculture corresponds to ISIC divisions 1-5 and includes forestry, hunting, and fishing, as well as cultivation of crops and livestock production. Value added is the net output of a sector after adding up all outputs and subtracting intermediate inputs. World Bank

FDI Foreign Direct Investment, net (current USD) 2011 Foreign direct investment are the net inflows of investment to acquire a lasting management interest (10 percent or more of voting stock) in an enterprise operating in an economy other than that of the investor. It is the sum of equity capital, reinvestment of earnings, other long-term capital, and short-term capital as shown in the balance of payments. World Bank

GNIpcap GNI per capita PP 2011 GNI per capita based on purchasing power parity (PPP). PPP GNI is gross national income (GNI) converted to international dollars using purchasing power parity rates. An international dollar has the same purchasing power over GNI as a U.S. dollar has in the United States. GNI is the sum of value added by all resident producers plus any product taxes (less subsidies) not included in the valuation of output plus net receipts of primary income (compensation of employees and property income) from abroad. World Bank

Inflatn Inflation, Consumer Prices (annual %) 2011 Inflation as measured by the consumer price index reflects the annual percentage change in the cost to the average consumer of acquiring a basket of goods and services that may be fixed or changed at specified intervals, such as yearly. World Bank

InfltnGDP Inflation, GDP deflator (annual %) 2011 Inflation as measured by the annual growth rate of the GDP implicit deflator shows the rate of price change in the economy as a whole. The GDP implicit deflator is the ratio of GDP in current local currency to GDP in constant local currency. World Bank

PctWomParl % women in national parliament 2010

United Nations

IntnetUser Internet Users, per 100 peple 2011 Internet users are people with access to the worldwide network. World Bank

HIVPrevlnc Estimated HIV Prevalence% - (Ages 15-49) 2009 Prevalence of HIV refers to the percentage of people ages 15-49 who are infected with HIV. UNAIDS estimates. UNAIDS

AgrLand Agricultural land (% of land area) 2009 Agricultural land refers to the share of land area that is arable, under permanent crops, and under permanent pastures. World Bank

AidRecPP Aid received per person (current US$) 2010 Net official development assistance (ODA) per capita consists of disbursements of loans made on concessional terms (net of repayments of principal) and grants by official agencies of the members of the Development Assistance Committee (DAC), by multilateral institutions, and by non-DAC countries to promote economic development and welfare in countries and territories in the DAC list of ODA recipients; and is calculated by dividing net ODA received by the midyear population estimate. It includes loans with a grant element of at least 25 percent (calculated at a rate of discount of 10 percent). World Bank

AlcohAdul Alcohol consumption per adult (15+) in litres 2008 Liters of pure alcohol, computed as the sum of alcohol production and imports, less alcohol exports, divided by the adult population (aged 15 years and older). World Health Organization

ArmyPct Military expenditure (% of central government expenditure) 2008 Military expenditures data from SIPRI are derived from the NATO definition, which includes all current and capital expenditures on the armed forces, including peacekeeping forces; defense ministries and other government agencies engaged in defense projects; paramilitary forces, if these are judged to be trained and equipped for military operations; and military space activities. Such expenditures include military and civil personnel, including retirement pensions of military personnel and social services for personnel; operation and maintenance; procurement; military research and development; and military aid (in the military expenditures of the donor country). World Development Indicators (World Bank)

TFR Total Fertility Rate 2011 The average number of children that would be born per woman if all women lived to the end of their childbearing years and bore children according to a given fertility rate at each age. This indicator shows the potential for population change in a country. World Bank

CO2perUSD CO2 kg per USD 2008 Carbon dioxide emissions are those stemming from the burning of fossil fuels and the manufacture of cement. They include carbon dioxide produced during consumption of solid, liquid, and gas fuels and gas flaring. World Bank

ExpdtrPrim Expenditure per student, primary (% of GDP per capita) 2008 Public expenditure per pupil as a % of GDP per capita. Primary is the total public expenditure per student in primary education as a percentage of GDP per capita. Public expenditure (current and capital) includes government spending on educational institutions (both public and private), education administration as well as subsidies for private entities (students/households and other privates entities). World Bank

ExpdtrSecd Expenditure per student, secondary (% of GDP per capita) 2008 Public expenditure per pupil as a % of GDP per capita. Secondary is the total public expenditure per student in secondary education as a percentage of GDP per capita. World Bank

ExpdtrTert Expenditure per student, tertiary (% of GDP per capita) 2008 Public expenditure per pupil as a % of GDP per capita. Tertiary is the total public expenditure per student in tertiary education as a percentage of GDP per capita. World Bank

FDIoutf Foreign direct investment, net outflows (% of GDP) 2010 Foreign direct investment are the net inflows of investment to acquire a lasting management interest (10 percent or more of voting stock) in an enterprise operating in an economy other than that of the investor. It is the sum of equity capital, reinvestment of earnings, other long-term capital, and short-term capital as shown in the balance of payments. This series shows net outflows of investment from the

In 1865, the total fertility rate of Argentina was 6.8 children per woman, meaning that the average woman born in Argentina in this time could expect to have just under seven children over the course of her reproductive years. Fertility in Argentina would decline gradually in the second half of the 19 th century, as the country would see a rising influx of European immigration and the liberalization of several sectors of the country’s economy. As Argentina would enter the first half of the 20 th century, fertility declined more rapidly as the country became increasingly urbanized. As a result, fertility would fall from six children at the beginning of the century, to just over three children by the 1940s. However, fertility would largely level off at this rate for the next three decades, seeing little change under the military junta which took power in the years following the Second World War. While fertility would see a brief rise in the late 1970s, coinciding with the end of the military government, continuing modernization and increased access to contraception would drive fertility down once more, continuing steadily into the 21st century. As a result, in 2020, it is estimated that the average woman born in Argentina can expect to have just over two children over the course of her reproductive years, which is below replacement level.

In Egypt, the fertility rate in 1910 was 6.02 births per woman (the fertility rate gives the amount of children a woman is expected to have over the course of their reproductive years). This number spiked somewhat in the inter-war period, before dropping down to 5.91 births in 1940 during the Great Depression and the Second World War. As part of the global baby boom following the Second World War, Egypt’s fertility rate increased until it peaked at 6.75 births per woman in 1955. From 1955 until 2010, Egypt’s fertility rate fell, at first slowly, than more intensely from 1980 to 2010; primarily due to general improvements in healthcare and sanitation, but also as a result of strong government promotion of family planning initiatives. However, after bottoming out at 3.02 in 2010, Egypt’s fertility rate saw a sharp reversal, rising to 3.45 births per woman by 2015, following a period of significant economic and political unrest in the country.

The fertility rates have fallen in all five Nordic countries over the last years. However, in 2021, the birth rates increased again in all five Nordics countries, besides in Sweden, where the fertility rate stayed the same. This can be explained by the higher number of babies born during the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2022, Iceland had the highest fertility rate of the Nordic countries, with *** children born per woman in reproductive age. The global trend of decreasing fertility The Nordics are not the only region with decreasing fertility rates. Globally, fertility rates have been on a steady decline since 2000. While lower-income countries have had more significant declines, they still have more children born per woman than higher-income countries. In 2000, almost * children were born per woman in low-income countries, decreasing to **** in 2021. By comparison, nearly **** children were born per woman in high-income countries, falling slightly to **** by 2021. Overall, in 2023, Niger, Angola, and the Democratic Republic of Congo had the highest fertility rates, while Taiwan, South Korea, and Singapore had the lowest fertility rates. Impacts of low fertility Greater access to education, challenges between work-life balance, and the costs of raising children can all be linked to falling fertility rates. However, this decline is not without consequences, and many countries are facing social and economic challenges because of aging and shrinking populations. For example, in Japan, where nearly ** percent of the country is aged 65 or older, an increasing proportion of the government expenditure is going towards social security benefits. Moreover, the very low unemployment rate in Japan can partially be attributed to having a shrinking labor force and fewer people to support the economy.