The spread between 10-year and two-year U.S. Treasury bond yields reached a positive value of 0.1 percent in November 2024. The 10-year minus two-year Treasury bond spread is generally considered to be an advance warning of severe weakness in the stock market. Negative spreads occurred prior to the recession of the early 1990s, the tech-bubble crash in 2000-2001, and the financial crisis of 2007-2008.

A 2023 survey found that 55 percent of Republicans do not think that Congress should raise the debt ceiling after the U.S. treasury reached its spending limits in January 2023. The U.S. debt ceiling does not authorize new spending commitments, it simply allows the government to finance existing legal obligations that it has made in the past. If a government does not raise the debt ceiling, the U.S. treasury will default on its debt, and could trigger an economic recession.

According to a 2019 survey, differing generations had a wide variety of opinions on who is most responsible for the current level of student loan debt in the United States. 37 percent of Baby Boomers (born 1946-1964) and 36 percent of the Silent Generation (born 1928-1945) placed the blame on the individual whose name was on the loan. In comparison, 23 percent of Generation Z (born 2000 and later) and 16 percent of Millennials (born 1982-1999) placed the blame on the federal government.

The yield on Russia 10Y Bond Yield rose to 15.30% on June 6, 2025, marking a 0.21 percentage point increase from the previous session. Over the past month, the yield has fallen by 0.45 points, though it remains 0.51 points higher than a year ago, according to over-the-counter interbank yield quotes for this government bond maturity. Russia 10-Year Government Bond Yield - values, historical data, forecasts and news - updated on June of 2025.

During the Great Recession of 2008-2009, the advanced economies of the G7 experienced a period of acute financial crises, downturns in the non-financial economy, and political instability. The governments of these countries in many cases stepped in to backstop their financial sectors and to try to stimulate their economies. The scale of these interventions was large by historical standards, with observers making comparisons to the measures of the New Deal which the U.S. undertook in the 1930s to end the Great Depression.

The bailouts of financial institutions and stimulus packages caused the government debt ratios of the United States, United Kingdom, and Japan in particular to rise sharply. The UK's government debt ratio almost doubled due to the bailouts of Northern Rock and Royal Bank of Scotland. On the other hand, the increases in government debt in the Eurozone were more measured, due to the comparative absence of stimulus spending in these countries. They would later be hit hard during the Eurozone crisis of the 2010s, when bank lending to the periphery of the Eurozone (Portugal, Spain, Ireland and Greece in particular) would trigger a sovereign debt crisis. The Canadian government, led by a Conservative premier, engaged in some fiscal stimulus to support its economy, but these packages were small in comparison to that in most other of the G7 countries.

The Emerging Markets Bond Index (EMBI), commonly known as "riesgo país" in Spanish speaking countries, is a weighted financial benchmark that measures the interest rates paid each day by a selected portfolio of government bonds from emerging countries. It is measured in base points, which reflect the difference between the return rates paid by emerging countries' government bonds and those offered by U.S. Treasury bills. This difference is defined as "spread". Which Latin American country has the highest risk bonds? As of September 19, 2024, Venezuela was the Latin American country with the greatest financial risk and highest expected returns of government bonds, with an EMBI spread of around 254 percent. This means that the annual interest rates paid by Venezuela's sovereign debt titles were estimated to be exponentially higher than those offered by the U.S. Treasury. On the other hand, Brazil's EMBI reached 207 index points at the end of August 2023. In 2023, Venezuela also had the highest average EMBI in Latin America, exceeding 40,000 base points. The impact of COVID-19 on emerging market bonds The economic crisis spawned by the coronavirus pandemic heavily affected the financial market's estimated risks of emerging governmental bonds. For instance, as of June 30, 2020, Argentina's EMBI spread had increased more than four percentage points in comparison to January 30, 2020. All the Latin American economies measured saw a significant increase of the EMBI spread in the first half of the year.

Subsovereign Finance as Discipline: A Critical Macro-Finance Perspective on U.S. Territorial Markets

DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.15566317
Resource Type: Dataset
Publication Date: 2025-05-31
Author: Anon
License: Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)
Copyright: © 2025 The Authors
Programming Language: Python
Repository Status: Active, replicable
Publisher: Zenodo
Version: 1.0

Description

This dataset and code repository support the macro-financial empirical study: Illiquidity Without Democracy, which analyzes the UBS Puerto Rico bond fund crisis through a critical macro-finance lens. By compiling liquidity and return data from the full Dow 30 alongside Puerto Rican financial equities, the project investigates how symbolic liquidity withdrawal operates as an instrument of financial subjugation in colonially governed markets.

The uploaded materials include:

• 35 Excel files containing firm-level trading data (Dow 30 and PR equities)

• A Python script (cmf.py) implementing Amihud illiquidity and Fama–MacBeth regressions

• A README.md file with detailed reproducibility instructions

Grounded in Bonizzi et al. (2022), this work contributes to the theory of financialized colonialism, where credit ratings, liquidity signals, and bond pricing are not merely technical indicators—but expressions of asymmetrical power. Our analysis empirically substantiates that liquidity constraints for Puerto Rican firms intensified during key institutional moments, revealing systemic exclusion embedded in neoliberal financial governance.

Keywords

• Financialized colonialism

• Critical macro-finance

• Market microstructure

• Illiquidity

• Fama–MacBeth regression

• Puerto Rico debt crisis

• UBS bond fund

• Neoliberalism

• Event study

• Dow 30

• Amihud illiquidity

This statistic shows the national debt of Greece from 2020 to 2023, with projections until 2030. In 2023, the national debt in Greece was around 420.4 billion U.S. dollars. In a ranking of debt to GDP per country, Greece is currently ranked third. Greece's struggle after the financial crisis Greece is a developed country in the EU and is highly dependent on its service sector as well as its tourism sector in order to gain profits. After going through a large economic boom from the 1950s to the 1970s as well as somewhat high GDP growth in the early to mid 2000s, Greece’s economy took a turn for the worse and struggled intensively, primarily due to the Great Recession, the Euro crisis as well as its own debt crisis. National debt within the country saw significant gains over the past decades, however roughly came to a halt due to financial rescue packages issued from the European Union in order to help Greece maintain and improve their economical situation. The nation’s continuous rise in debt has overwhelmed its estimated GDP over the years, which can be attributed to poor government execution and unnecessary spending. Large sums of financial aid were taken from major European banks to help balance out these government-induced failures and to potentially help refuel the economy to encourage more spending, which in turn would decrease the country’s continuously rising unemployment rate. Investors, consumers and workers alike are struggling to see a bright future in Greece, whose chances of an economic comeback are much lower than that of other struggling countries such as Portugal and Italy. However, Greece's financial situation might improve in the future, as it is estimated that at least its national debt will decrease - slowly, but steadily. Still, since its future participation in the European Union is in limbo as of now, these figures can only be estimates, not predictions.

The statistic presents a ranking of Italy's largest creditors', the organisations that have bought up Italian government bonds. As of Q4 2011, Intesta Sanpalo of Italy was the largest creditor, holding Italian bonds to the value of just over 58 billion U.S. dollars.

Italy recorded a Government Debt to GDP of 135.30 percent of the country's Gross Domestic Product in 2024. This dataset provides - Italy Government Debt To GDP - actual values, historical data, forecast, chart, statistics, economic calendar and news.

The statistic shows the national debt of the United States from 2020 to 2024, with projections up until 2030. The amount of the debt of the United States amounted to around 35.25 trillion U.S. dollars in 2024. National debt of the United States National debt in the United States is a topic of much debate and controversy, primarily due to large amounts of unnecessary spending. Despite the fact that the United States had the highest gross domestic product (GDP) in the world in 2016, along with being one of the most developed powerhouses in the world, the country suffers in many economical aspects. When analyzing the country’s imports and exports, the United States has recorded a trade deficit for more than a decade as of 2015, meaning that its imports exceeded its exports every year. However, despite being significantly affected by the world economic crisis in 2008, the country’s trade balance noticeably improved in 2009, almost halving the country’s total trade deficit. An economical aspect that did not improve during the world economic crisis was the country’s unemployment rate. The number of unemployed in the United States increased greatly in 2009 and continued to rise in 2010, however finally stabilized in the following years and has since declined yearly. When considering the total population of the United States, which amounted to roughly 322 million in 2015, a large percentage of citizens, who are capable of work, have been left without a job for roughly 7 years.

This document contains statistical data and analysis of global gold demand and prices from 2010 to 2024, presented by Dojipedia, a website focused on Forex investment information. The data is organized quarterly and includes various categories of gold demand such as jewelry fabrication, technology use, investment, and central bank purchases. It also provides the LBMA gold price in US dollars per ounce for each quarter.The document highlights significant events that influenced gold prices and demand during this period. These events include major economic crises, geopolitical tensions, and market shifts. For instance, it mentions the European debt crisis in 2010, the U.S. credit rating downgrade in 2011, the Federal Reserve's quantitative easing tapering signals in 2013, and the COVID-19 pandemic's impact starting in 2020.The data shows how gold demand and prices often increase during times of economic uncertainty or political instability, as investors view gold as a safe-haven asset. For example, gold prices reached record highs in 2024 amid global economic and geopolitical uncertainties.Dojipedia presents itself as a platform with five years of Forex market investment experience. The site offers free educational content on technical analysis methods such as Elliott Wave, ICT Trading, and Smart Money Concept. It also mentions plans to publish free books on technical analysis.The document includes a disclaimer stating that the information provided is for general purposes only and not financial advice. It warns about the high risks associated with investing in financial markets like CFDs, Forex, cryptocurrencies, and gold. The disclaimer emphasizes that leveraged products may not be suitable for all investors due to the high risk to capital.Overall, this document serves as a comprehensive resource for those interested in gold market trends and their relationship to global economic events over the past decade and a half.

In 2023, the gross federal debt in the United States amounted to around 93,500 U.S. dollars per capita. This is a moderate increase from the previous year, when the per capita national debt amounted to about 92,528 U.S. dollars. The total debt accrued by the U.S. annually can be accessed here. Federal debt of the United States The level of national debt held by the United States government has risen sharply in the years following the Great Recession. Federal debt is the amount of debt the federal government owes to creditors who hold assets in the form of debt securities. As with individuals and consumers, there is a common consensus among economists that holding debt is not necessarily problematic for government so long as the public debt is held at a sustainable level. Although there is no agreed upon ratio of debt to gross domestic product, the increasing debt held by the Federal Reserve has become a major part of the political discourse in the United States. Politics and the national debt In recent years, debate over the debt ceiling has been of concern to domestic politicians, the owners of federal debt, and global economy as a whole. The debt ceiling is a legislated maximum amount that national debt can reach intended to impose a degree of fiscal prudence on incumbent governments. However, as national debt has grown the debt ceiling has been reached, thus forcing legislative action by Congress. In both 2011 and 2013, new legislation was passed by Congress allowing the debt ceiling to be raised. The Budget Control Act of 2011 and the No Budget, No Pay Act of 2013 successively allowed the government to avoid defaulting on national debt and therefore avert a potential economic crisis.

The 2020 recession did not follow the trend of previous recessions in the United States because only six months elapsed between the yield curve inversion and the 2020 recession. Over the last five decades, 12 months, on average, has elapsed between the initial yield curve inversion and the beginning of a recession in the United States. For instance, the yield curve inverted initially in January 2006, which was 22 months before the start of the 2008 recession. A yield curve inversion refers to the event where short-term Treasury bonds, such as one or three month bonds, have higher yields than longer term bonds, such as three or five year bonds. This is unusual, because long-term investments typically have higher yields than short-term ones in order to reward investors for taking on the extra risk of longer term investments. Monthly updates on the Treasury yield curve can be seen here.

The Federal Reserve's balance sheet has undergone significant changes since 2007, reflecting its response to major economic crises. From a modest *** trillion U.S. dollars at the end of 2007, it ballooned to approximately **** trillion U.S. dollars by May 2025. This dramatic expansion, particularly during the 2008 financial crisis and the COVID-19 pandemic - both of which resulted in negative annual GDP growth in the U.S. - showcases the Fed's crucial role in stabilizing the economy through expansionary monetary policies. Impact on inflation and interest rates The Fed's expansionary measures, while aimed at stimulating economic growth, have had notable effects on inflation and interest rates. Following the quantitative easing in 2020, inflation in the United States reached * percent in 2022, the highest since 1991. However, by *************, inflation had declined to *** percent. Concurrently, the Federal Reserve implemented a series of interest rate hikes, with the rate peaking at **** percent in ***********, before the first rate cut since ************** occurred in **************. Financial implications for the Federal Reserve The expansion of the Fed's balance sheet and subsequent interest rate hikes have had significant financial implications. In 2023, the Fed reported a negative net income of ***** billion U.S. dollars, a stark contrast to the ***** billion U.S. dollars profit in 2022. This unprecedented shift was primarily due to rapidly rising interest rates, which caused the Fed's interest expenses to soar to over *** billion U.S. dollars in 2023. Despite this, the Fed's net interest income on securities acquired through open market operations reached a record high of ****** billion U.S. dollars in the same year.

The United States Treasury's 10-year bond earned an average return of 1.68 percent in 2023. This rate was adjusted to reflect a constant maturity and also indexed to inflation, giving an idea of real returns for longer-term investments. This expected return averaged around two percent before the financial crisis but was negative in 2011, 2012, 2020, and 2021.

The U.S. commercial real estate sector had more favorable debt service coverage ratios before the COVID-19 outbreak than before the global financial crisis. In 2019, the debt service coverage ratio of the homebuilders' sector equaled to 6.3, while it was -5.3 at the end of 2007. The debt service coverage ratio of the residential sector was eight in 2019, up from 2.6 in 2007.

The statistic shows the national debt of the United States from 2019 to 2022 in relation to the gross domestic product (GDP), with projections up until 2029. In 2022, the national debt of the United States was at around 120.03 percent of the gross domestic product. See the US GDP for further information. US finances There has been a dramatic increase in the public debt of the United States since 1990, although the month-to-month change has been quite stable over the last few months. Public debt is defined as the amount of money borrowed by a country to cover budget deficits. A ranking of individual state debt in the United States shows that California is leading by a clear margin, with more than double the amount of runner-up New York. Vermont, North Dakota and South Dakota are the states with the lowest amount of debt. Even before the recession of 2008, the national debt of the United States had been increasing steadily and excessively, and it is predicted to rise even further. Budget cuts and fewer job opportunities as a result of the crisis are taking their toll on the American economy, which is still recovering. Trade figures as well as unemployment are still below average. Subsequently, the national debt and the national debt of the United States per capita have more or less quadrupled since the 1990s. Interestingly, the United States is not even among the top ten of countries with the highest public debt in relation to gross domestic product in international comparison. Japan, Greece and Italy – among others – report far higher figures than the United States.

According to a 2019 survey, 14 percent of respondents in the United States said that the best solution to the student loan debt crisis is for college graduates to work harder. In comparison, 22 percent of respondents said that free public college is the best solution to the student loan debt crisis.

In October 2024, the public debt of the United States was around 35.46 trillion U.S. dollars, a slight decrease from the previous month. The U.S. public debt ceiling has become one of the most prominent political issues in the States in recent years, with debate over how to handle it causing political turmoil between Democrats and Republicans. The public debt The public debt of the United States has risen quickly since 2000, and in 2022 was more than five times higher than in 2000. The public debt is the total outstanding debt that is owed by the federal government. This figure comprises debt owed to the public (for example, through bonds) and intergovernmental debt (debt owed to various governmental departments), such as Social Security. Debt in Politics The debt issue has become a highly contentious topic within the U.S. government. Measures such as stimulus packages, social programs and tax cuts add to the public debt. Additionally, spending tends to peak during large global events, such as the Great Depression, the 2008 financial crisis, or the COVID-19 pandemic - all of which had a detrimental impact on the U.S. economy. Although both major political parties in the U.S. tend to blame one another for increases in the country's debt, a recent analysis found that both parties have contributed almost equally to national expenditure. Debate on raising the debt ceiling, or the amount of debt the federal government is allowed to have at any one time, was a leading topic in the government shutdown in October 2013. Despite plans from both Democrats and Republicans on how to lower the national debt, it is only expected to increase over the next decade.