A significant eruption is classified as one that meets at least one of the following criteria: caused fatalities, caused moderate damage (approximately $1 million or more), Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of 6 or greater, generated a tsunami, or was associated with a significant earthquake.

This dataset is from http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/nndc/servlet/ShowDatasets?dataset=102557&search_look=50&display_look=5 http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/docucomp/page?xml=NOAA/NESDIS/NGDC/MGG/Hazards/iso/xml/G10147.xml&view=getDataView&header=none

The Significant Volcanic Eruptions Database is a global listing of over 600 eruptions from 4360 BC to the present. A significant eruption is classified as one that meets at least one of the following criteria: caused fatalities, caused moderate damage (approximately $1 million or more), Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of 6 or greater, generated a tsunami, or was associated with a significant earthquake. The database provides information on the latitude, longitude, elevation, type of volcano, last known eruption, VEI index, and socio-economic data such as the total number of casualties, injuries, houses destroyed, and houses damaged, and $ dollage damage estimates. References, political geography, and additional comments are also provided for each eruption. If the eruption was associated with a tsunami or significant earthquake, it is flagged and linked to the related database. For a complete list of current and past activity for all volcanoes on the planet active during the last 10,000 years, please see Smithsonian Institution's Global Volcanism Program (GVP).

The Significant Volcanic Eruption Database is a global listing of over 500 significant eruptions which includes information on the latitude, longitude, elevation, type of volcano, and last known eruption. A significant eruption is classified as one that meets at least one of the following criteria: caused fatalities, caused moderate damage (approximately $1 million or more), with a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of 6 or larger, caused a tsunami, or was associated with a major earthquake.

Context:

What is the global distribution of recent eruptions and what type of volcano is associated with each type? This brief dataset from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Significant Volcanic Eruption Database contains metrics related to global eruptions. I chose to use the dataset to produce a global terrain map and HTML file that displays recent eruptions as colored markers associated with the type of volcano as well as a pop up description with location info from the dataset.

Content:

The time period of this dataset is from 2010 to 2018 when this notebook was written. It contains 36 columns that describe various properties of the volcano as well as data related to economic and human impact of the eruption. Properties that I feel are relevant and worthy of displaying on a marker pop up are "Year", "Name", "Country", "Latitude", "Longitude", "Type" although there are some tempting ones such as 'TOTAL_DAMAGE_MILLIONS_DOLLARS' and 'TOTAL_HOUSES_DESTROYED' that I chose to not include. This particular slice in time only contains 63 observations. The NOAA eruptions data is not real time nor is it updated fully as seen in the many null fields. I believe the data is entered as NOAA becomes aware of various situations related to that event. For example, as the total economic damage and death toll is finally made public, NOAA updates their database.

Acknowledgements:

Data was sourced from the NOAA Significant Volcanic Eruption Database

https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/nndc/servlet/ShowDatasets?dataset=102557&search_look=50&display_look=50

Inspiration:

I personally think geology is fascinating and I am currently learning Python for data analysis. The recent eruptions of Mount Kilauea in Hawaii came to mind so I hunted down open datasets that had to do with natural disasters and came upon the site from NOAA.

Extensions:

Although this dataset is small, anyone can download the full contents of the database from NOAA and perhaps answer some other burning questions: Do certain types of volcanoes erupt more frequently? Do certain types of volcanoes cause more economic damage than others? Is there a correlation between number of lives lost and volcano type or location?

The Smithsonian's "Eruptions, Earthquakes, & Emissions" web application (or "E3") is a time-lapse animation of volcanic eruptions and earthquakes since 1960. It also shows volcanic gas emissions (sulfur dioxide, SO2) since 1978 — the first year satellites were available to provide global monitoring of SO2. The eruption data are drawn from the Volcanoes of the World (VOTW) database maintained by the Smithsonian's Global Volcanism Program (GVP). The earthquake data are pulled from the United States Geological Survey (USGS) Earthquake Catalog. Sulfur-dioxide emissions data incorporated into the VOTW for use here originate in NASA's Multi-Satellite Volcanic Sulfur Dioxide L4 Long-Term Global Database. Please properly credit and cite any use of GVP eruption and volcano data, which are available via a download button within the app, through webservices, or through options under the Database tab above. A citation for the E3 app is given below.

Clicking the image will open this web application in a new tab.

Global Volcanism Program, 2016. Eruptions, Earthquakes & Emissions, v. 1.0 (internet application). Smithsonian Institution. Accessed 19 Oct 2018 (https://volcano.si.edu/E3/).

What is the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI)?

VEI is the "Richter Scale" of volcanic eruptions. Assigning a VEI is not an automated process, but involves assessing factors such as the volume of tephra (volcanic ash or other ejected material) erupted, the height the ash plume reaches above the summit or altitude into the atmosphere, and the type of eruption (Newhall and Self, 1982). VEIs range from 1 (small eruption) to 8 (the largest eruptions in Earth's entire history).

What about eruptions before 1960?

For information about volcanic eruptions before 1960, explore the GVP website, where we catalog eruption information going back more than 10,000 years. This E3 app only displays eruptions starting in 1960 because the catalog is much more complete after that date. For most eruptions before the 20th century we rely on the geologic record more than historical first-hand accounts — and the geologic record is inherently incomplete (due to erosion) and not fully documented.

What are "SO2 emissions" and what do the different circle sizes mean?

The E3 app displays emissions of sulfur dioxide gas (SO2) from erupting volcanoes, including the mass in kilotons. Even though water vapor (steam) and carbon dioxide gas (see more about CO2 below) are much more abundant volcanic gases, SO2is the easiest to detect using satellite-based instruments, allowing us to obtain a global view. There is no universally accepted "magnitude" scale for emissions; the groupings presented here were chosen to best graphically present the relative volumes based on available data.

What am I seeing when I click on an SO2 emission event?<p style='background: transparent; font-size: medium; margin-top: -0.5em; margin-bottom: 20px; padding: 0.25em 1em; border: 0px;

A volcano is a vent in Earth's surface from which lava, rock, ash, and hot gases erupt. Most volcanoes are located along the boundaries of tectonic plates, although some, such as those that built the Hawai'ian Islands are found over hot spots. A significant volcanic eruption, according to the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), is defined "as one that meets at least one of the following criteria: (1) caused fatalities, (2) caused moderate damage (approximately one million U.S. dollars or more), (3) has a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of six or larger, (4) caused a tsunami, or (5) was associated with a major earthquake."Similar to the Richter or moment magnitude scales that measure earthquakes, the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) is a logarithmic scale (from zero to eight) used to describe and classify volcanic eruptions based on magnitude (amount of magma erupted) and intensity (height of the eruption column). A logarithmic scale means each interval describes an increase ten times greater than the previous number. Each number on the VEI scale is also associated with a word to describe the eruption:0. Non-explosive (Kilauea in 1975)1. Gentle (Karangetang in 1997)2. Explosive (Lengai, Ol Doinyo in 1940)3. Severe (Hekla in 1980)4. Cataclysmic (Tungurahua in 2011)5. Paroxysmal (Mount Vesuvius in 79 C.E.)6. Colossal (Novarupta in Katmai National Park and Preserve in 1912)7. Super-colossal (Santorini in 1610 B.C.E.)8. Mega-colossal (Yellowstone National Park 640,000 years ago)This map layer, featuring data from the National Center for Environmental Information part of the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), shows the location of significant volcanic eruptions. If you click an event on the map, a pop-up opens with additional information about past eruptions at that location.Want to learn more about volcanoes? Check out Forces of Nature.

The word volcano is used to refer to the opening from which molten rock and gas issue from Earth's interior onto the surface, and also to the cone, hill, or mountain built up around the opening by the eruptive products. This slide set depicts ash clouds, fire fountains, lava flows, spatter cones, glowing avalanches, and steam eruptions from 18 volcanoes in 13 countries. Volcano types include strato, cinder cone, basaltic shield, complex, and island-forming. Perhaps no force of nature arouses more awe and wonder than that of a volcanic eruption. Volcanoes can be ruthless destroyers. Primitive people offered sacrifices to stem the tide of such eruptions and many of their legends were centered around volcanic activity. Volcanoes are also benefactors. Volcanic processes have liberated gases of the atmosphere and water in our lakes and oceans from the rocks deep beneath Earth's surface. The fertility of the soil is greatly enhanced by volcanic eruptive products. Land masses such as islands and large sections of continents may owe their existence entirely to volcanic activity. The "volcano" is used to refer to the opening from which molten rock and gas issue from Earth's interior onto the surface, and also to the cone, hill, or mountain built up around the opening by the eruptive products. The molten rock material generated within Earth that feeds volcanoes is called magma and the storage reservoir near the surface is called the magmachamber. Eruptive products include lava (fluid rock material) and pyroclastics or tephra (fragmentary solid or liquid rock material). Tephra includes volcanic ash, lapilli (fragments between 2 and 64 mm), blocks, and bombs. Low viscosity lava can spread great distances from the vent. Higher viscosity produces thicker lava flows that cover less area. Lava may formlava lakes of fluid rock in summit craters or in pit craters on the flanks of shield volcanoes. When the lava issues vertically from a central vent or a fissure in a rhythmic, jet-like eruption, it produces a lava fountain. Pyroclastic (fire-broken) rocks and rock fragments are products of explosive eruptions. These may be ejected more or less vertically, thenfall back to Earth in the form of ash fall deposits. Pyroclastic flows result when the eruptive fragments follow the contours of the volcano and surrounding terrain. They are of three main types: glowing ash clouds, ash flows, and mudflows. A glowing ash cloud (nuee ardente) consists of an avalanche of incandescent volcanic fragments suspended on a cushion of air or expanding volcanic gas. This cloud forms from the collapse of a vertical ash eruption, from a directed blast, or is the result of the disintegration of a lava dome. Temperatures in the glowing cloud can reach 1,000 deg C and velocities of 150 km per hour. Ash flows resemble glowing ash clouds; however, their temperatures are much lower. Mudflows (lahars) consist of solid volcanic rock fragments held in water suspension. Some may be hot, but most occur as cold flows. They may reach speeds of 92 km per hour and extend to distances of several tens of kilometers. Large snow-covered volcanoes that erupt explosively are the principal sources of mud flows. Explosions can give rise to air shock waves and base surges. Air shock waves are generated as a result of the explosive introduction of volcanic ejecta into the atmosphere. A base surge may carry air, water, and solid debris outward from the volcano at the base of the vertical explosion column. Volcanic structures can take many forms. A few of the smaller structures built directly around vents include cinder, spatter, and lava cones. Thick lavas may pile up over their vents to form lava domes. Larger structures produced by low viscosity lava flows include lava plains and gently sloping cones known as a shield volcanoes. A stratovolcano (also known as a composite volcano) is built of successive layers of ash and lava. A volcano may consist of two or more cones side by side and is referred to as compound or complex. Sometimes a violent eruption will partially empty the underground reservoir of magma. The roof of the magma chamber may thenpartially or totally collapse. The resulting caldera may be filled by water. The volcanic structure tells us much about the nature of the eruptions.

The statistic presents the death toll in individual countries due to the world's major volcanic eruptions from 1900 to 2016*. The volcanic eruption in Cameroon on August 24, 1986 claimed a total of 1,746 deaths. Volcanic eruptions A volcanic eruption is defined as a discharge of lava and gas from a volcanic vent or fissure. Volcanoes spew hot, dangerous gases, ash, lava, and rock that are powerfully destructive. The most common consequences of this are population movements, economic loss, affected people and deaths.

Agriculture-based economies are most affected by volcanic eruption. It is unpredictable how much affected an agriculture-based economy will be in a volcanic eruption. The economic loss caused by major volcanic eruptions varies from 1,000 million U.S. during the volcanic eruption in Colombia, November 13, 1995, to 80 million U.S. dollar caused by the volcanic eruption in Japan in 1945.

It is a big tragedy when people are affected by natural disasters. 1,036,065 affected people were counted during the volcanic eruption in the Philippines in June 9, 1991. Most of the states which know about the volcanic activities in their countries have an evacuation plan trying to safe peoples lives. In some cases it is difficult for the people to follow authorities’ instructions caused by unforeseen situations and it comes to high numbers of casualties like in the volcanic eruption in Ecuador in August 14, 2006.

According to the Wold Risk Index from 2013, Qatar, with an index value of 0.1, was the safest country in the world. This index is a complex interplay of natural hazards and social, political and environmental factors.

The statistic shows the economic damage caused by major volcanic eruptions in the period from 1900 to 2016*. The volcanic eruption on September 09, 1983 in Indonesia caused a loss of approximately 149.69 million U.S. dollars.

A significant eruption is classified as one that meets at least one of the following criteriacaused fatalities, caused moderate damage (approximately $1 million or more), Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of 6 or greater, generated a tsunami, or was associated with a significant earthquake.The database contains information on the latitude, longitude, elevation, type of volcano, last known eruption, VEI index, and socio-economic data such as the total number of casualties, injuries, houses destroyed, and houses damaged, and $ dollage damage estimates, if available.

Significant Global Volcanic EruptionsThis feature layer, utilizing data from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), displaysglobal locations of significant volcanic eruptions. Per NOAA, "A significant eruption is classified as one that meets at least one of the following criteria: Caused fatalitiesCaused moderate damage (approximately $1 million or more)With a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of 6 or larger Caused a tsunamiWas associated with a major earthquake"Santa Maria eruption (1902)Data downloaded: 12/04/2022Data source: Search Volcano EventsData modification: NoneFor more information: Natural Hazards DataFor feedback, please contact: ArcGIScomNationalMaps@esri.comNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationPer NOAA, its mission is "To understand and predict changes in climate, weather, ocean, and coasts, to share that knowledge and information with others, and to conserve and manage coastal and marine ecosystems and resources."

Electron microprobe glass chemistry data from explosive eruption deposits from Popocatépetl, Iztaccíhuatl and Tláloc-Telapón volcanoes in Central México, spanning the last 700 ka. Associated with the following paper: Sunyé-Puchol, I., Hodgetts, A.G.E., Watt, S.F.L., Arce, J.L., Barfod, D.N., Mark, D.F., Sosa-Ceballos, G., Siebe, C., Dymock, R.C., Blaauw, M., Smith, V.C., 2021. Reconstructing the middle to late Pleistocene explosive eruption histories of Popocatépetl, Iztaccíhuatl and Tláloc-Telapón volcanoes in Central México. J Volcanol Geoth Res 421, 107413. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2021.107413

Context

The data this week comes from The Smithsonian Institution.

Axios put together a lovely plot of volcano eruptions since Krakatoa (after 1883) by elevation and type.

For more information about volcanoes check out the below Wikipedia article or specifically about VEI (Volcano Explosivity Index) see the Wikipedia article here. Lastly, Google Earth has an interactive site on "10,000 Years of Volcanoes"!

Content

Per Wikipedia:

A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface.

Earth's volcanoes occur because its crust is broken into 17 major, rigid tectonic plates that float on a hotter, softer layer in its mantle. Therefore, on Earth, volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging, and most are found underwater.

Erupting volcanoes can pose many hazards, not only in the immediate vicinity of the eruption. One such hazard is that volcanic ash can be a threat to aircraft, in particular those with jet engines where ash particles can be melted by the high operating temperature; the melted particles then adhere to the turbine blades and alter their shape, disrupting the operation of the turbine. Large eruptions can affect temperature as ash and droplets of sulfuric acid obscure the sun and cool the Earth's lower atmosphere (or troposphere); however, they also absorb heat radiated from the Earth, thereby warming the upper atmosphere (or stratosphere). Historically, volcanic winters have caused catastrophic famines.

VEI Volcano Explosivity Index: https://www.googleapis.com/download/storage/v1/b/kaggle-user-content/o/inbox%2F4476084%2F27b6f67938591a3fd463bc11dcafd797%2Fvei.svg?generation=1589216563726306&alt=media" alt="">

Volcano eruptions also can affect the global climate, a Nature Article has open-access data for a specific time-period of eruptions along with temperature anomalies and tree growth. More details can be found from NASA and the UCAR. A summary of the pay-walled Nature article can be found via the Smithsonian.

The researchers detected 238 eruptions from the past 2,500 years, they report today in Nature. About half were in the mid- to high-latitudes in the northern hemisphere, while 81 were in the tropics. (Because of the rotation of the Earth, material from tropical volcanoes ends up in both Greenland and Antarctica, while material from northern volcanoes tends to stay in the north.) The exact sources of most of the eruptions are as yet unknown, but the team was able to match their effects on climate to the tree ring records.

The analysis not only reinforces evidence that volcanoes can have long-lasting global effects, but it also fleshes out historical accounts, including what happened in the sixth-century Roman Empire. The first eruption, in late 535 or early 536, injected large amounts of sulfate and ash into the atmosphere. According to historical accounts, the atmosphere had dimmed by March 536, and it stayed that way for another 18 months.

Tree rings, and people of the time, recorded cold temperatures in North America, Asia and Europe, where summer temperatures dropped by 2.9 to 4.5 degrees Fahrenheit below the average of the previous 30 years. Then, in 539 or 540, another volcano erupted. It spewed 10 percent more aerosols into the atmosphere than the huge eruption of Tambora in Indonesia in 1815, which caused the infamous “year without a summer”. More misery ensued, including the famines and pandemics. The same eruptions may have even contributed to a decline in the Maya empire, the authors say.

There are additional datasets from the Nature article available as Excel files, but they are a bit more complicated - feel free to explore at your own discretion! If you use any of the Nature data, please cite w/ DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nature14565.

Acknowledgements

The data was downloaded and cleaned by Thomas Mock for #TidyTuesday during the week of May 11th, 2020. You can see the code used to clean the data in the #TidyTuesday GitHub repository.

What is Tidy Tuesday?

TidyTuesday A weekly data project aimed at the R ecosystem. As this project was borne out of the R4DS Online Learning Community and the R for Data Science textbook, an emphasis was placed on understanding how to summarize and arrange data to make meaningful charts with ggplot2, tidyr, dplyr, and other tools in the tidyverse ecosystem. However, any code-based methodology is welcome - just please remember to share the code used to generate the results.

Join the R4DS Online Learning Community in the weekly #TidyTuesday event! Every week we post a raw dataset, a chart or article related to that dataset, and ask you to explore the data. While the dataset will be “tamed”, it will not always be tidy!

We will have many sources of data and want to emphasize that no causation is implied. There are various moderating variables that affect all data, many of which might not have been captured in these datasets. As such, our guidelines are to use the data provided to practice your data tidying and plotting techniques. Participants are invited to consider for themselves what nuancing factors might underlie these relationships.

The intent of Tidy Tuesday is to provide a safe and supportive forum for individuals to practice their wrangling and data visualization skills independent of drawing conclusions. While we understand that the two are related, the focus of this practice is purely on building skills with real-world data.

All data will be posted on the data sets page on Monday. It will include the link to the original article (for context) and to the data set.

We welcome all newcomers, enthusiasts, and experts to participate, but be mindful of a few things: 1. The data set comes from the source article or the source that the article credits. Be mindful that the data is what it is and Tidy Tuesday is designed to help you practice data visualization and basic data wrangling in R. 2. Again, the data is what it is! You are welcome to explore beyond the provided dataset, but the data is provided as a "toy" dataset to practice techniques on. 3. This is NOT about criticizing the original article or graph. Real people made the graphs, collected or acquired the data! Focus on the provided dataset, learning, and improving your techniques in R. 4. This is NOT about criticizing or tearing down your fellow #RStats practitioners or their code! Be supportive and kind to each other! Like other's posts and help promote the #RStats community! 5. Use the hashtag #TidyTuesday on Twitter if you create your own version and would like to share it. 6. Include a picture of the visualisation when you post to Twitter. 7. Include a copy of the code used to create your visualization when you post to Twitter. Comment your code wherever possible to help yourself and others understand your process! 8. Focus on improving your craft, even if you end up with something simple! 9. Give credit to the original data source whenever possible.

This dataset is associated with the VolcanEESM project led by the project team at the University of Leeds. The project was funded by NCAR/UCAR Atmospheric Chemistry and Modeling Visiting Scientist Program, NCAS, University of Leeds.

The global volcanic sulphur dioxide (SO2) emissions database is a combination of available information from the wider literature with as many observations of the amount and location of SO2 emitted by each volcanic eruption as possible. The database includes no information about the size, mass, distribution or optical depth of resulting aerosol. As such the database is model agnostic and it is up to each modeling group to make decisions about how to implement the emission file in their prognostic stratospheric aerosol scheme.

The dataset is divided into two parts based on the availability of satellite data. For the pre-satellite era, the necessary information about the emissions was gathered from the latest ice core records of sulphate deposition in combination historical accounts available in the wider literature (see references included in the database for specific citation for each record). In the satellite era, volcanic emissions were primarily derived from remotely sensed observations.

For the period 1850 CE to 1979 the dataset combined the most recent volcanic sulfate deposition datasets from ice cores with volcanological and, where applicable, petrological estimates of the SO2 mass emitted as well as historical records of large-magnitude volcanic eruptions. In detail, for the majority of eruptions between 1850 CE to 1979 , there are few direct measurement of SO2 emissions or quantitative observations of the plume height and very few measurements of the aerosol optical depth (AOD).

Parameters in the database include: Day_of_Emission: The 24 hour period in which the emission is thought to have occurred. (Ordered by the variable Eruption_Number starting with the first eruption in the database.)

Eruption: Field that contains the Volcano_Number (Which uniquely identifies each volcano in the Global Volcanism Program Database), Volcano_Name (official name from the Global Volcanism Program Database), Notes_and_References (list of notes about the observed parameters and references used to derive each entry). ( Ordered by the variable Eruption_Number starting with the first eruption in the database.)

Latitude: Latitude of each emission from -90 to +90 (Ordered by the variable Eruption_Number starting with the first eruption in the database.)

Longitude: Longitude of each emission degrees East (Ordered by the variable Eruption_Number starting with the first eruption in the database.)

VEI: Volcanic Explosively Index of each emission based on Global Volcanism Program Database (Ordered by the variable Eruption_Number starting with the first eruption in the database.)

Total_Emission_of_SO2_Tg: Total emission of SO2 in teragram for the specific database entry (Ordered by the variable Eruption_Number starting with the first eruption in the database.)

Maximum_Injection_Height_km: Maximum height of each emission in kilometers above sea level. (Ordered by the variable Eruption_Number starting with the first eruption in the database.)

Minimum_Injection_Height_km: Minimum height of each emission in kilometers above sea level. (Ordered by the variable Eruption_Number starting with the first eruption in the database.)

Month_of_Emission: The month in which the emission is thought to have occurred. (Ordered by the variable Eruption_Number starting with the first eruption in the database.)

Year_of_Emission: The Year in which the emission is thought to have occurred. (Ordered by the variable Eruption_Number starting with the first eruption in the database.)

This dataset comprises MISR-derived output from a comprehensive analysis of Icelandic volcano eruptions (Eyjafjallajokull 2010, Grimsvotn 2011, Holuhraun 2014-2015). The data presented here are analyzed and discussed in the following paper: Flower, V.J.B., and R.A. Kahn, 2020. The evolution of Icelandic volcano emissions, as observed from space in the era of NASA’s Earth Observing System (EOS). J. Geophys. Res. Atmosph. (in press). The data is subdivided by volcano of origin, date and MISR orbit number. Within each case folder there are up to 11 files relating to an individual MISR overpass. Files include plume height records (from both the red and blue spectral bands) derived from the MISR INteractive eXplorer (MINX) program, displayed in: map view, downwind profile plot (along with the associated wind vectors retrieved at plume elevation), a histogram of retrieved plume heights and a text file containing the digital plume height values. An additional JPG is included delineating the plume analysis region, start point for assessing downwind distance, and input wind direction used to initialize the MINX retrieval. A final two files are generated from the MISR Research Aerosol (RA) retrieval algorithm (Limbacher, J.A., and R.A. Kahn, 2014. MISR Research-Aerosol-Algorithm: Refinements For Dark Water Retrievals. Atm. Meas. Tech. 7, 1-19, doi:10.5194/amt-7-1-2014). These files include the RA model output in HDF5, and an associated JPG of key derived variables (e.g. Aerosol Optical Depth, Angstrom Exponent, Single Scattering Albedo, Fraction of Non-Spherical components, model uncertainty classifications and example camera views). File numbers per folder vary depending on the retrieval conditions of specific observations. RA plume retrievals are limited when cloud cover was widespread or the solar radiance was insufficient to run the RA. In these cases the RA files are not included in the individual folders.

The Smithsonian Institution's Global Volcanism Program (GVP) is housed in the Department of Mineral Sciences, National Museum of Natural History, in Washington D.C. We are devoted to a better understanding of Earth's active volcanoes and their eruptions during the last 10,000 years.

The mission of GVP is to document, understand, and disseminate information about global volcanic activity. We do this through four core functions: reporting, archiving, research, and outreach. The data systems that lie at our core have been in development since 1968 when GVP began documenting the eruptive histories of volcanoes.

Reporting. GVP is unique in its documentation of current and past activity for all volcanoes on the planet active during the last 10,000 years. During the early stages of an eruption anywhere in the world we act as a clearinghouse of reports, data, and imagery. Reports are released in two formats. The Smithsonian / USGS Weekly Volcanic Activity Report provides timely information vetted by GVP staff about current eruptions. The Bulletin of the Global Volcanism Network provides comprehensive reporting on recent eruptions on a longer time horizon to allow incorporation of peer-reviewed literature and observatory reports.

Archiving. Complementing our effort toward reporting of current eruptive activity is our database of volcanoes and eruptions that documents the last 10,000 years of Earth's volcanism. These databases and interpretations based on them were published in three editions of the book "Volcanoes of the World".

Research. GVP researchers are curators in the Department of Mineral Sciences and maintain active research programs on volcanic products, processes, and the deep Earth that is the ultimate source of volcanism.

Outreach. This website presents more than 7,000 reports on volcanic activity, provides access to the baseline data and eruptive histories of Holocene volcanoes, and makes available other resources to our international partners, scientists, civil-authorities, and the public.

The Global Volcanism Program relies on an international network of collaborating individuals, programs and organizations, many of which are listed below:

United States Geological Survey Volcano Hazards Program (USA). The Volcano Hazards Program monitors active and potentially active volcanoes, assesses their hazards, responds to volcanic crises, and conducts research on volcanoes. The Volcano Disaster Assistance Program (VDAP) (with the U.S. Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance) works to reduce fatalities and economic losses in countries experiencing a volcano emergency.

Global Volcano Model (Bristol University and the British Geological Survey, UK). GVM is a growing international network that aims to create a sustainable, accessible information platform on volcanic hazard and risk.

WOVOdat (Earth Observatory of Singapore). A collective record of volcano monitoring, worldwide - brought to you by the WOVO (World Organization of Volcano Observatories).

Integrated Earth Data Applications (Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University, USA). A community-based data facility to support, sustain, and advance the geosciences by providing data services for observational solid earth data from the Ocean, Earth, and Polar Sciences.

VHub (The State University of New York at Buffalo, USA). An online resource for collaboration in volcanology research and risk mitigation.

International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior (IAVCEI). IAVCEI represents the primary international focus for: (1) research in volcanology, (2) efforts to mitigate volcanic disasters, and (3) research into closely related disciplines, such as igneous geochemistry and petrology, geochronology, volcanogenic mineral deposits, and the physics of the generation and ascent of magmas in the upper mantle and crust. IAVCEI has charged GVP with providing the official names and unique identifier numbers for the world's volcanoes.

National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Volcanic Ash Advisory Centers (VAACs) The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) has established nine Volcanic Ash Advisory Centers tasked with monitoring Volcanic Ash plumes within their assigned airspace.

Name, location, and type of volcanoes active in the past 10,000 years

Linking tectonic setting to eruptive activity in volcanic arcs provides a framework to understand processes that control the production, accumulation and eruption of magma on Earth. We use the Holocene eruptive records of 162 volcanoes, which are selected based on an assessment of recording biases, to calculate the probability of recording large eruptions (between Magnitudes 4 and 7). We quantify regional variability in the sizes of volcanic eruptions and compare it with subduction parameters influencing the generation, transport and storage of magma. Given the tectonic setting of a subduction zone is multidimensional (e.g., age, speed, obliquity of the subducting plate) we use a graphical model to explore the strength of probabilistic relationships between tectonic and volcanic variables. The variable that exhibits the strongest probabilistic relationship with eruption size is convergence obliquity, with larger eruptions favored in settings where convergence is normal. Normal convergence favors the storage and accumulation of larger volumes of magma, whereas oblique convergence favors the transport and eruption of smaller volumes of magma. In low-obliquity arcs where magma storage is promoted, the subduction of older slabs results in higher mantle productivity, which thermally favors the accumulation of eruptible magma and larger eruptions on average. However, the highest mantle productivity also results in more frequent magma injection and pressurization of crustal reservoirs. Consequently, arcs with moderate slab ages and low obliquity produce the highest proportion of larger eruptions. In high-obliquity arcs mantle productivity does not dominantly control eruption sizes. Instead, thinner crust facilitates frequent transport of magma to the surface, resulting in smaller eruptions. For the largest eruptions on Earth (e.g., Magnitude 8), however, accumulation of eruptible magma will be dominantly controlled by thermomechanical modification of the crust and not the frequency of magma intrusion. Despite the importance of convergence obliquity, our results show that variability in the sizes of volcanic eruptions is controlled by complex relationships with other parameters including slab age and crustal thickness. By using a graphical model, we have been able to explore complex volcano-tectonic relationships. We suggest a similar approach could be extremely valuable for exploring other complex multidimensional datasets within the Earth Sciences.

This statistic displays the largest volcanic eruptions in history based on the volume tephra that was erupted. About 30 million years ago, the Wha Wha Springs eruption produced more than 5500 cubic kilometers of ejecta in a week.

This dataset contains Volcanic Hazard Level for proximal volcanic hazards (e.g., pyroclastic flows, lahars, lava). Volcanic Hazard Level is derived from the Smithsonian Institution Global Volcanism Program (GVP) volcano dataset, GVP eruption dataset, and the British Geological Survey LaMEVE (Large Magnitude Explosive Volcanic Eruptions) database. These data provide volcano location, maximum volcanic explosive intensity (VEI), and dates of previous eruption. Date of last eruption and maximum VEI are used to generate the Volcanic Hazard Level, which is assigned to the area within 100km radius of the volcano. This dataset does not include data for hazard from volcanic ash.