100+ datasets found
  1. Global literacy rate1976-2023

    • statista.com
    Updated Feb 20, 2025
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    Statista (2025). Global literacy rate1976-2023 [Dataset]. https://www.statista.com/statistics/997360/global-adult-and-youth-literacy/
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    Dataset updated
    Feb 20, 2025
    Dataset authored and provided by
    Statistahttp://statista.com/
    Area covered
    Worldwide
    Description

    In the past five decades, the global literacy rate among adults has grown from 67 percent in 1976 to 87.36 percent in 2023. In 1976, males had a literacy rate of 76 percent, compared to a rate of 58 percent among females. This difference of over 17 percent in 1976 has fallen to just seven percent in 2020. Although gaps in literacy rates have fallen across all regions in recent decades, significant disparities remain across much of South Asia and Africa, while the difference is below one percent in Europe and the Americas. Reasons for these differences are rooted in economic and cultural differences across the globe. In poorer societies, families with limited means are often more likely to invest in their sons' education, while their daughters take up a more domestic role. Varieties do exist on national levels, however, and female literacy levels can sometimes exceed the male rate even in impoverished nations, such as Lesotho (where the difference was over 17 percent in 2014); nonetheless, these are exceptions to the norm.

  2. A

    Adult Literacy Rate by country

    • data.amerigeoss.org
    • communities-amerigeoss.opendata.arcgis.com
    • +1more
    Updated Mar 4, 2016
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    Maps.com (2016). Adult Literacy Rate by country [Dataset]. https://data.amerigeoss.org/dataset/groups/adult-literacy-rate-by-country
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    html, csv, arcgis geoservices rest api, geojson, kml, zipAvailable download formats
    Dataset updated
    Mar 4, 2016
    Dataset provided by
    Maps.com
    Description
    Adult Literacy Rate for Male, Female, and Total Population by country for most recent year available. Year of data collection for each country is listed when known.
    Adult literacy rates are defined as the percentage of people ages 15 and above who can both read and write with understanding a short simple statement about their everyday life.
    Data Sources: United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Institute for Statistics, via World Bank DataBank; CIA World Factbook; Country shapes from Natural Earth 50M scale data.
  3. T

    United States - Literacy Rate, Adult Total for Other Small States

    • tradingeconomics.com
    csv, excel, json, xml
    Updated Feb 25, 2020
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    TRADING ECONOMICS (2020). United States - Literacy Rate, Adult Total for Other Small States [Dataset]. https://tradingeconomics.com/united-states/literacy-rate-adult-total-for-other-small-states-fed-data.html
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    json, excel, csv, xmlAvailable download formats
    Dataset updated
    Feb 25, 2020
    Dataset authored and provided by
    TRADING ECONOMICS
    License

    Attribution 4.0 (CC BY 4.0)https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
    License information was derived automatically

    Time period covered
    Jan 1, 1976 - Dec 31, 2025
    Area covered
    United States
    Description

    United States - Literacy Rate, Adult Total for Other Small States was 86.25975 % of People Ages 15 and Above in January of 2023, according to the United States Federal Reserve. Historically, United States - Literacy Rate, Adult Total for Other Small States reached a record high of 86.25975 in January of 2023 and a record low of 71.82288 in January of 1983. Trading Economics provides the current actual value, an historical data chart and related indicators for United States - Literacy Rate, Adult Total for Other Small States - last updated from the United States Federal Reserve on May of 2025.

  4. o

    Illiterate Population - Dataset OD Mekong Datahub

    • data.opendevelopmentmekong.net
    Updated Mar 8, 2018
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    (2018). Illiterate Population - Dataset OD Mekong Datahub [Dataset]. https://data.opendevelopmentmekong.net/dataset/illiterate-population
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    Dataset updated
    Mar 8, 2018
    License

    Attribution 3.0 (CC BY 3.0)https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
    License information was derived automatically

    Description

    Despite the steady rise in literacy rates over the past 50 years, there are still 750 million illiterate adults around the world, most of whom are women. These numbers produced by the UIS are a stark reminder of the work ahead to meet the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), especially Target 4.6 to ensure that all youth and most adults achieve literacy and numeracy by 2030. Current literacy data are generally collected through population censuses or household surveys in which the respondent or head of the household declares whether they can read and write with understanding a short, simple statement about one's everyday life in any written language. Some surveys require respondents to take a quick test in which they are asked to read a simple passage or write a sentence, yet clearly literacy is a far more complex issue that requires more information. For the UIS, the existing dataset serves as a placeholder for a new generation of indicators being developed with countries and partners under the umbrella of the Global Alliance to Monitor Learning (GAML). GAML is developing the methodologies needed to gather more nuanced data and the tools required for their standardisation. In particular, the Alliance is finding ways to link existing large-scale assessments to produce comparable data to monitor the literacy skills of children, youth and adults. This involves close collaboration with a wide range of partners.

  5. National Assessment of Adult Literacy, 2003

    • catalog.data.gov
    • data.amerigeoss.org
    • +1more
    Updated Aug 13, 2023
    + more versions
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    National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) (2023). National Assessment of Adult Literacy, 2003 [Dataset]. https://catalog.data.gov/dataset/national-assessment-of-adult-literacy-2003-61d00
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    Dataset updated
    Aug 13, 2023
    Dataset provided by
    National Center for Education Statisticshttps://nces.ed.gov/
    Description

    National Assessment of Adult Literacy, 2003 (NAAL:2003), is a study that is part of the National Assessment of Adult Literacy program. NAAL:2003 (https://nces.ed.gov/naal/) is a cross-sectional assessment that collected information about English literacy among American adults age 16 and older. The study was conducted using direct assessment from 19,000 adults 16 or older, in their homes and some in prisons from the 50 states and District of Columbia. Households and prison inmates were sampled in 2003. The weighted response rate was 62.1 percent for households and 88.3 percent for prison inmates. Key statistics produced from NAAL:2003 include reading skills, general literacy, relationships, demographics, and background characteristics.

  6. Progress in International Reading Literacy Study, 2011

    • catalog.data.gov
    • data.amerigeoss.org
    • +1more
    Updated Aug 12, 2023
    + more versions
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    National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) (2023). Progress in International Reading Literacy Study, 2011 [Dataset]. https://catalog.data.gov/dataset/progress-in-international-reading-literacy-study-2011-6379c
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    Dataset updated
    Aug 12, 2023
    Dataset provided by
    National Center for Education Statisticshttps://nces.ed.gov/
    Description

    The Progress in International Reading Literacy Study, 2011 (PIRLS 2011), is part of the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) program. PIRLS 2011 (https://nces.ed.gov/surveys/pirls/) is a cross-sectional study that provides international comparative information of the reading literacy of fourth-grade students and examines factors that may be associated with the acquisition of reading literacy in young students. The study was conducted using questionnaires and direct assessments of fourth-grade students. In the United States a total of 370 schools and 12,726 fourth-grade students participated in 2011. The final weighted student response rate was 96 percent and the final weighted school response rate was 85 percent. The overall weighted response rate was 81 percent. Key statistics produced from PIRLS 2011 are how well fourth-grade students read, how students in one country compare with students in another country, how much fourth-grade students value and enjoy reading, and internationally, how the reading habits and attitudes of students vary.

  7. A

    ‘Govt Of India Literacy Rate’ analyzed by Analyst-2

    • analyst-2.ai
    Updated Feb 13, 2022
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    Analyst-2 (analyst-2.ai) / Inspirient GmbH (inspirient.com) (2022). ‘Govt Of India Literacy Rate’ analyzed by Analyst-2 [Dataset]. https://analyst-2.ai/analysis/kaggle-govt-of-india-literacy-rate-d270/latest
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    Dataset updated
    Feb 13, 2022
    Dataset authored and provided by
    Analyst-2 (analyst-2.ai) / Inspirient GmbH (inspirient.com)
    License

    Attribution 4.0 (CC BY 4.0)https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
    License information was derived automatically

    Area covered
    India
    Description

    Analysis of ‘Govt Of India Literacy Rate’ provided by Analyst-2 (analyst-2.ai), based on source dataset retrieved from https://www.kaggle.com/doncorleone92/govt-of-india-literacy-rate on 13 February 2022.

    --- Dataset description provided by original source is as follows ---

    Context

    This is the official dataset released by the govt. of India based on the census 2001 and 2011 survey.

    Content

    The data is of 35 Indian states and union territories. The literacy rate is spread across the major parameters - Overall, Rural and Urban. All the data is percentage of the total population of that state.

    Acknowledgements

    Derived from the govt. of India's official site.

    Inspiration

    Understand the literacy rate in India and which states/UT's have the highest growth in terms of increased literacy rates.

    --- Original source retains full ownership of the source dataset ---

  8. d

    Year, Region, Gender, and State wise Literacy Rates as per PLFS

    • dataful.in
    Updated Jun 13, 2025
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    Dataful (Factly) (2025). Year, Region, Gender, and State wise Literacy Rates as per PLFS [Dataset]. https://dataful.in/datasets/20619
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    csv, xlsx, application/x-parquetAvailable download formats
    Dataset updated
    Jun 13, 2025
    Dataset authored and provided by
    Dataful (Factly)
    License

    https://dataful.in/terms-and-conditionshttps://dataful.in/terms-and-conditions

    Area covered
    States of India
    Variables measured
    Literacy Rate
    Description

    This dataset provides the literacy rates of persons of different age groups in both rural and urban areas as per the PLFS report. The different age groups covered include those aged 5 years and above and those aged 7 years and above.

  9. T

    LITERACY RATE ADULT TOTAL PERCENT OF PEOPLE AGES 15 AND ABOVE WB DATA.HTML...

    • tradingeconomics.com
    csv, excel, json, xml
    Updated Jan 13, 2024
    + more versions
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    TRADING ECONOMICS (2024). LITERACY RATE ADULT TOTAL PERCENT OF PEOPLE AGES 15 AND ABOVE WB DATA.HTML by Country in AMERICA [Dataset]. https://tradingeconomics.com/country-list/literacy-rate-adult-total-percent-of-people-ages-15-and-above-wb-data.html/1000?continent=america
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    excel, json, xml, csvAvailable download formats
    Dataset updated
    Jan 13, 2024
    Dataset authored and provided by
    TRADING ECONOMICS
    License

    Attribution 4.0 (CC BY 4.0)https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
    License information was derived automatically

    Time period covered
    2025
    Area covered
    United States
    Description

    This dataset provides values for LITERACY RATE ADULT TOTAL PERCENT OF PEOPLE AGES 15 AND ABOVE WB DATA.HTML reported in several countries. The data includes current values, previous releases, historical highs and record lows, release frequency, reported unit and currency.

  10. M

    North America Literacy Rate

    • macrotrends.net
    csv
    Updated Jun 30, 2025
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    MACROTRENDS (2025). North America Literacy Rate [Dataset]. https://www.macrotrends.net/global-metrics/countries/nac/north-america/literacy-rate
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    csvAvailable download formats
    Dataset updated
    Jun 30, 2025
    Dataset authored and provided by
    MACROTRENDS
    License

    Attribution 4.0 (CC BY 4.0)https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
    License information was derived automatically

    Time period covered
    Jan 1, 2003 - Dec 31, 2022
    Area covered
    North America
    Description

    Historical chart and dataset showing North America literacy rate by year from 2003 to 2022.

  11. m

    Dataset of Digital Literacy Level Measurement of Students, Based on the...

    • data.mendeley.com
    Updated Aug 24, 2023
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    yuni harmawati (2023). Dataset of Digital Literacy Level Measurement of Students, Based on the Components of Ability to use Media, Advanced use of Digital Media, Managing Digital Learning Platforms, and Ethics and Safety in the use of digital media. [Dataset]. http://doi.org/10.17632/cnscppv7jk.2
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    Dataset updated
    Aug 24, 2023
    Authors
    yuni harmawati
    License

    Attribution 4.0 (CC BY 4.0)https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
    License information was derived automatically

    Description

    This dataset portrays the measurement of Digital Literacy of students based on the components Ability to use Media, Advanced use of Digital Media , Managing Digital Learning Platforms , and Ethics and Safety in the use of digital media in students at the junior high school level in the Madiun area in implementing and utilizing digital technology as a means as well as a source of material for learning. 385 respondents through online survei via Google Form.

  12. a

    Youth literacy rate of persons (15-24 years), by sex

    • hub.arcgis.com
    Updated May 16, 2023
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    UN DESA Statistics Division (2023). Youth literacy rate of persons (15-24 years), by sex [Dataset]. https://hub.arcgis.com/datasets/232376fa36ab411caa04e4c70ba9ffad
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    Dataset updated
    May 16, 2023
    Dataset authored and provided by
    UN DESA Statistics Division
    Area covered
    Description

    Data Series: Youth literacy rate of persons (15-24 years), by sex Indicator: II.9 - Youth literacy rate of persons aged 15-24 years, by sex Source year: 2022 This dataset is part of the Minimum Gender Dataset compiled by the United Nations Statistics Division. Domain: Education

  13. d

    Primary Six Literacy Rate 2003 - Datasets - Data dot UG

    • catalog.datacentre.ug
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    Primary Six Literacy Rate 2003 - Datasets - Data dot UG [Dataset]. https://catalog.datacentre.ug/dataset/primary-six-literacy-rate-2003
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    Description

    Primary Six Literacy Rate 2003

  14. d

    Literacy rate for Population by Sex

    • data.gov.bh
    • bahrain.opendatasoft.com
    csv, excel, json
    Updated Mar 19, 2025
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    (2025). Literacy rate for Population by Sex [Dataset]. https://www.data.gov.bh/explore/dataset/11-literacy-rate-for-population-by-sex/
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    json, excel, csvAvailable download formats
    Dataset updated
    Mar 19, 2025
    Description

    There is no description for this dataset.

  15. Global adult literacy rate 2000-2023, by gender

    • statista.com
    • ai-chatbox.pro
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    Statista (2025). Global adult literacy rate 2000-2023, by gender [Dataset]. https://www.statista.com/statistics/1220131/global-adult-literacy-rate-by-gender/
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    Dataset authored and provided by
    Statistahttp://statista.com/
    Area covered
    Worldwide
    Description

    There is a gender gap in the global literacy rate. Although literacy rates have generally increased worldwide for both men and women, men are on average more literate than women. As of 2023, about 90.6 percent of men and a little less than 84.1 percent of women worldwide were literate. Adult literacy rate is defined as the percentage of people aged 15 years and above who can both read and write with understanding a short, simple statement about their everyday life. Youth literacy rate Not only does the literacy gender gap concern adults, it also exists among the world’s younger generations aged 15 to 24. Despite an overall increase in literacy, young men are still more literate than young women. In fact, the global youth literacy rate as gender parity index was 0.98 as of 2023, indicating that young women are not yet as literate as young men. Gender pay gap Gender gaps occur in many different spheres of global society. One such issue concerns salary gender gaps in professional life. Regarding the controlled gender pay gap, which measures the median salary for men and women with the same job and qualifications, women still earned less than men as of 2024. The difference was even bigger when measuring the median salary for all men and women. However, not everyone worries about gender pay gaps. According to a survey from 2021, 54 percent of the female respondents deemed the gender pay gap a real problem, compared to 45 percent of the male respondents.

  16. Kenya KE: Literacy Rate: Adult Female: % of Females Aged 15 and Above

    • ceicdata.com
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    CEICdata.com, Kenya KE: Literacy Rate: Adult Female: % of Females Aged 15 and Above [Dataset]. https://www.ceicdata.com/en/kenya/education-statistics/ke-literacy-rate-adult-female--of-females-aged-15-and-above
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    Dataset provided by
    CEIC Data
    License

    Attribution 4.0 (CC BY 4.0)https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
    License information was derived automatically

    Time period covered
    Dec 1, 2000 - Dec 1, 2014
    Area covered
    Kenya
    Variables measured
    Education Statistics
    Description

    Kenya KE: Literacy Rate: Adult Female: % of Females Aged 15 and Above data was reported at 74.006 % in 2014. This records an increase from the previous number of 66.863 % for 2007. Kenya KE: Literacy Rate: Adult Female: % of Females Aged 15 and Above data is updated yearly, averaging 74.006 % from Dec 2000 (Median) to 2014, with 3 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 77.893 % in 2000 and a record low of 66.863 % in 2007. Kenya KE: Literacy Rate: Adult Female: % of Females Aged 15 and Above data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by World Bank. The data is categorized under Global Database’s Kenya – Table KE.World Bank.WDI: Education Statistics. Adult literacy rate is the percentage of people ages 15 and above who can both read and write with understanding a short simple statement about their everyday life.; ; UNESCO Institute for Statistics; Weighted average; Each economy is classified based on the classification of World Bank Group's fiscal year 2018 (July 1, 2017-June 30, 2018).

  17. India Literacy Rate: Goa

    • ceicdata.com
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    CEICdata.com, India Literacy Rate: Goa [Dataset]. https://www.ceicdata.com/en/india/literacy-rate/literacy-rate-goa
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    Dataset provided by
    CEIC Data
    License

    Attribution 4.0 (CC BY 4.0)https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
    License information was derived automatically

    Time period covered
    Dec 1, 1951 - Dec 1, 2011
    Area covered
    India
    Variables measured
    Education Statistics
    Description

    Literacy Rate: Goa data was reported at 88.700 % in 12-01-2011. This records an increase from the previous number of 82.010 % for 12-01-2001. Literacy Rate: Goa data is updated decadal, averaging 65.710 % from Dec 1951 (Median) to 12-01-2011, with 7 observations. The data reached an all-time high of 88.700 % in 12-01-2011 and a record low of 23.480 % in 12-01-1951. Literacy Rate: Goa data remains active status in CEIC and is reported by Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. The data is categorized under India Premium Database’s Education Sector – Table IN.EDA001: Literacy Rate.

  18. Nepal Business Literacy Impact Evaluation - Baseline Women Dataset

    • catalog.data.gov
    Updated Jun 8, 2024
    + more versions
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    data.usaid.gov (2024). Nepal Business Literacy Impact Evaluation - Baseline Women Dataset [Dataset]. https://catalog.data.gov/dataset/nepal-business-literacy-impact-evaluation-baseline-women-dataset-2c847
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    Dataset updated
    Jun 8, 2024
    Dataset provided by
    United States Agency for International Developmenthttps://usaid.gov/
    Area covered
    Nepal
    Description

    Feed the Future activities in Nepal include the Business Literacy (BL) Program, which operates in conjunction with the Knowledge-Based Integrated Sustainable Agriculture and Nutrition (KISAN) Project. Nepal Business Literacy (BL) Impact Evaluation (IE) is designed to collect and analyze three rounds of qualitative and quantitative data collected in order to learn from evidence of the extent to which initial and persistent results of the BL training course occur. The Nepal BL IE is designed to investigate initial and longer-term or persistent impacts of the training experience on targeted aspects of beneficiaries’ knowledge, skills, attitudes (KSA), and behaviors. Investigators also are interested in whether and to what extent the BL training experience leads to adoption of targeted behaviors, such as starting new micro enterprises, that persist over time. This dataset (n=1,434, vars=414) contains women’s records for Modules D (Self-Efficacy in Business Literacy Topics), E (Program Participation and Business Literacy Learning), and F (Household Resources and Production). Records can be uniquely identified by pbs_id + hm_id (although pbs_id can also be used alone because only one woman per household was interviewed).

  19. d

    International Data Base

    • dknet.org
    • rrid.site
    • +2more
    Updated Jan 29, 2022
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    (2022). International Data Base [Dataset]. http://identifiers.org/RRID:SCR_013139
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    Dataset updated
    Jan 29, 2022
    Description

    A computerized data set of demographic, economic and social data for 227 countries of the world. Information presented includes population, health, nutrition, mortality, fertility, family planning and contraceptive use, literacy, housing, and economic activity data. Tabular data are broken down by such variables as age, sex, and urban/rural residence. Data are organized as a series of statistical tables identified by country and table number. Each record consists of the data values associated with a single row of a given table. There are 105 tables with data for 208 countries. The second file is a note file, containing text of notes associated with various tables. These notes provide information such as definitions of categories (i.e. urban/rural) and how various values were calculated. The IDB was created in the U.S. Census Bureau''s International Programs Center (IPC) to help IPC staff meet the needs of organizations that sponsor IPC research. The IDB provides quick access to specialized information, with emphasis on demographic measures, for individual countries or groups of countries. The IDB combines data from country sources (typically censuses and surveys) with IPC estimates and projections to provide information dating back as far as 1950 and as far ahead as 2050. Because the IDB is maintained as a research tool for IPC sponsor requirements, the amount of information available may vary by country. As funding and research activity permit, the IPC updates and expands the data base content. Types of data include: * Population by age and sex * Vital rates, infant mortality, and life tables * Fertility and child survivorship * Migration * Marital status * Family planning Data characteristics: * Temporal: Selected years, 1950present, projected demographic data to 2050. * Spatial: 227 countries and areas. * Resolution: National population, selected data by urban/rural * residence, selected data by age and sex. Sources of data include: * U.S. Census Bureau * International projects (e.g., the Demographic and Health Survey) * United Nations agencies Links: * ICPSR: http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/icpsrweb/ICPSR/studies/08490

  20. d

    Year, Gender, Region, and Age group wise Literacy Rates in India as reported...

    • dataful.in
    Updated Jun 13, 2025
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    Dataful (Factly) (2025). Year, Gender, Region, and Age group wise Literacy Rates in India as reported in Census, PLFS, NSS, NFHS, and MoSPI [Dataset]. https://dataful.in/datasets/21442
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    xlsx, application/x-parquet, csvAvailable download formats
    Dataset updated
    Jun 13, 2025
    Dataset authored and provided by
    Dataful (Factly)
    License

    https://dataful.in/terms-and-conditionshttps://dataful.in/terms-and-conditions

    Area covered
    India
    Variables measured
    Literacy Rate
    Description

    This dataset presents national-level literacy rates, compiled from multiple official sources, including the National Sample Survey (NSS), Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS), Population Census, National Family Health Survey (NFHS), and data published by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI).

    It provides literacy rates disaggregated by gender, region (urban and rural), and age group. The inclusion of age groups is essential, as the criteria for calculating literacy rates have changed over time. To allow consistent comparisons across sources and years, an ‘age group’ column is included in the dataset. In general, literacy is assessed based on whether a person above a specified age can read and write a simple message with understanding in at least one language. The age specified as per these sources is as follows:

    Census: Population aged 7 years and above (used since 1981; previously, it was 5 years and above). Data is available for 1951, 1961, 1971, 1981, 1991, 2001, and 2011 NSS: Population aged 5 years and above. Data is available for 2005, 2007-08, 2010, 2011-12, 2014, and 2017-18 PLFS: Survey typically covers population aged 15 years and above, but literacy data is also available for 5 years and above and 7 years and above. Data is available for 2017-18 to 2023-24. NFHS: Covers population aged 15–49 years only. Literacy rate refers to women and men who have completed standard 6, 9, or higher, or those who can read a full or partial sentence among individuals assumed to be literate. Data is available for 2005-06, 2015-16, and 2019-21. MoSPI: Follows the NSS age criteria, usually 5 years and above. Data is available for 2003, 2004, 2006, 2007, and 2011

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Statista (2025). Global literacy rate1976-2023 [Dataset]. https://www.statista.com/statistics/997360/global-adult-and-youth-literacy/
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Global literacy rate1976-2023

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7 scholarly articles cite this dataset (View in Google Scholar)
Dataset updated
Feb 20, 2025
Dataset authored and provided by
Statistahttp://statista.com/
Area covered
Worldwide
Description

In the past five decades, the global literacy rate among adults has grown from 67 percent in 1976 to 87.36 percent in 2023. In 1976, males had a literacy rate of 76 percent, compared to a rate of 58 percent among females. This difference of over 17 percent in 1976 has fallen to just seven percent in 2020. Although gaps in literacy rates have fallen across all regions in recent decades, significant disparities remain across much of South Asia and Africa, while the difference is below one percent in Europe and the Americas. Reasons for these differences are rooted in economic and cultural differences across the globe. In poorer societies, families with limited means are often more likely to invest in their sons' education, while their daughters take up a more domestic role. Varieties do exist on national levels, however, and female literacy levels can sometimes exceed the male rate even in impoverished nations, such as Lesotho (where the difference was over 17 percent in 2014); nonetheless, these are exceptions to the norm.

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