Keywords; Search terms: historical time series; historical statistics; histat / HISTAT . Abstract: The author`s analysis explains to what extent the Central European agriculture and food industry has managed to satisfy the demand of the population in the centuries since the Middle Ages. For this purpose, the author collects and analyses prices, wages, rents, agricultural products, and population movements, as well as the costs of living of broad levels of the population. The price data at hand (prices of wheat and rye in Germany, Europe and America) provide a substantial basis for his analysis. On the basis of the long-term fluctuation of corn prices in England, France, Northern Italy, Germany and Austria, three waves of development can be identified: 1. An upswing in the 13th and partly also at the beginning of the 14th century is followed by a downswing in the late Middle Ages. 2. Another upswing in the 16th century was interrupted in the 17th century; 3. a third upswing in the 18th century dissolved in the 19th century into shorter and partly opposed movements that merge again only in the late 19th and 20th century. What do these waves mean? There are two approaches which could explain these developments: 1. Such price fluctuations are the consequence of a fluctuating supply of money in the Central European economy. 2. The rise in prices is caused by the growing demand of a rapidly growing population. On the one hand, the author verifies the ´laws of development´ by MALTHUS and RICARDO on the basis of the historical facts. On the other hand, the historical series of developments are interpreted by way of an appropriate scheme of terms and relations regarding their meaning. Topics: Tables in the ZA-Online-Database HISTAT: - prices of rye in Germany (1341-1940) - prices of wheat and rye in Europe and America (1991-1830) - prices of wheat and rye in Central Europe (1201-1960)

In the past four centuries, the population of the United States has grown from a recorded 350 people around the Jamestown colony of Virginia in 1610, to an estimated 331 million people in 2020. The pre-colonization populations of the indigenous peoples of the Americas have proven difficult for historians to estimate, as their numbers decreased rapidly following the introduction of European diseases (namely smallpox, plague and influenza). Native Americans were also omitted from most censuses conducted before the twentieth century, therefore the actual population of what we now know as the United States would have been much higher than the official census data from before 1800, but it is unclear by how much. Population growth in the colonies throughout the eighteenth century has primarily been attributed to migration from the British Isles and the Transatlantic slave trade; however it is also difficult to assert the ethnic-makeup of the population in these years as accurate migration records were not kept until after the 1820s, at which point the importation of slaves had also been illegalized. Nineteenth century In the year 1800, it is estimated that the population across the present-day United States was around six million people, with the population in the 16 admitted states numbering at 5.3 million. Migration to the United States began to happen on a large scale in the mid-nineteenth century, with the first major waves coming from Ireland, Britain and Germany. In some aspects, this wave of mass migration balanced out the demographic impacts of the American Civil War, which was the deadliest war in U.S. history with approximately 620 thousand fatalities between 1861 and 1865. The civil war also resulted in the emancipation of around four million slaves across the south; many of whose ancestors would take part in the Great Northern Migration in the early 1900s, which saw around six million black Americans migrate away from the south in one of the largest demographic shifts in U.S. history. By the end of the nineteenth century, improvements in transport technology and increasing economic opportunities saw migration to the United States increase further, particularly from southern and Eastern Europe, and in the first decade of the 1900s the number of migrants to the U.S. exceeded one million people in some years. Twentieth and twenty-first century The U.S. population has grown steadily throughout the past 120 years, reaching one hundred million in the 1910s, two hundred million in the 1960s, and three hundred million in 2007. In the past century, the U.S. established itself as a global superpower, with the world's largest economy (by nominal GDP) and most powerful military. Involvement in foreign wars has resulted in over 620,000 further U.S. fatalities since the Civil War, and migration fell drastically during the World Wars and Great Depression; however the population continuously grew in these years as the total fertility rate remained above two births per woman, and life expectancy increased (except during the Spanish Flu pandemic of 1918).

Since the Second World War, Latin America has replaced Europe as the most common point of origin for migrants, with Hispanic populations growing rapidly across the south and border states. Because of this, the proportion of non-Hispanic whites, which has been the most dominant ethnicity in the U.S. since records began, has dropped more rapidly in recent decades. Ethnic minorities also have a much higher birth rate than non-Hispanic whites, further contributing to this decline, and the share of non-Hispanic whites is expected to fall below fifty percent of the U.S. population by the mid-2000s. In 2020, the United States has the third-largest population in the world (after China and India), and the population is expected to reach four hundred million in the 2050s.

The concept of the ‘age-specific attendance rates’ is used in this study as indicator for the population’s attendance at education. This indicator eliminates the effects of demographic influences in temporal and regional comparisons. In this concept the long-term development of school and univeristy attendance is analyzed by relating the age-grouped number of pupils and students to the population of the same age cohort. First the development of the pupils’ and students’ number and the main features of the demographic development are represented. The development of the age-specific attendance rates of separate age cohorts shows the effect of changes caused by school-reorganization (for example the reorganization of the school years or the implementation of new educational establishments). Furthermore, this development suggests the comparison of the attendence development between different educational institutions an within the same institition between different age cohorts. The results of the calculations for the age cohort of the 13-year-olds is of particular interest, because in this age group the school attendance is compulsory for all children and the alloction of the children to the different school-types in Germany (elementary school or rather ‘Hauptschule’, mid-level secondary school or rather ‘Real-Schule’, grammar school or rather ‘Gymnasium’) is completed. The age-specific attendance rates at the grammar schools (‘Gymnasium’) of the 18-year-olds could be seen as a rough indicator for the population’s participation at advanced education. Comparisons of the age-specific attendance rates of boys and girls at school and of men and women at vocational education and universities respectively shows, that the participation of girls and women has increased. Afterwards the passage thru the edicational system of the birth-cohorts 1940, 1946, 1950, 1960, and 1970 is analysed. Topics: Datatables in HISTAT: A. Absolute Number: resident population, pupils, and students (1950-1987). B. Age-specific attendance rates by kind of school (1952-1987). (6-year-olds, 10-year-olds, 13-year-olds, 16-year-olds, 18-year-olds, 22-year-olds, 26-29-year-olds). C. Age-specific attedance rates at university (Portion of female students, percentage of students, students at the age of 22, 26 and 29 by sex). D. Age-specific attendance rates at education by birth-cohorts. (Birth-cohorts: 1940, 1946, 1950, 1960 and 1970 by kind of school and by kind of universities). E. Age-specific attendance rates at education by German Federal States (=Bundesländer). Anlass zu den vorliegenden Studien ist die Verwendung demografischer Argumente bei der Diskussion über den zukünftigen Lehrerbedarf sowie über einen Mangel an beruflichen Ausbildungsplätzen. Dabei wird das Konzept des relativen Schulbesuchs als Indikator verwendet, der bei zeitlichen und regionalen Vergleichen die Einwirkungen demografischer Einflüsse eliminiert. Im Rahmen dieses Konzepts wird die langfristige Entwicklung des Schul- und Hochschulbesuchs der nach dem Alter gegliederten Schüler- und Studentenzahlen, bezogen auf die altersgleiche Bevölkerung, analysiert. Zunächst werden die Entwicklung der Schüler- und Studentenzahlen und die Grundzüge der demografischen Entwicklung getrennt dargestellt. Die zeitliche Entwicklung des relativen Schulbesuchs für einzelne Altersjahrgänge zeigt im zweiten Schritt zunächst die Auswirkungen schulorganisatorischer Veränderungen (z.B. Schuljahresumstellung oder Einführung neuer Bildungsinstitutionen). Sie legt darüber hinaus nahe, zeitliche Entwicklungen zwischen den verschiedenen Institutionen und innerhalb derselben Schulart für verschiedene Altersstufen zu vergleichen. Besonderes interessant ist das Ergebnis der Berechnungen für die 13jährigen, da einerseits in dieser Altersgruppe noch alle Kinder schulpflichtig sind und sich damit nahezu der gesamte Altersjahrgang im Schulsystem befindet, andererseits die Verteilung der Schüler auf die verschiedenen Schularten nach dem Grundschulbesuch weitgehend abgeschlossen ist. Der relative Schulbesuch der 18jährigen an Gymnasien kann demgegenüber als grober Indikator für die Entwicklung des Schulbesuches in der gymnasialen Oberstufe und damit der Zugangsberechtigung zum Hochschulbereich betrachtet werden. Anschließend wird der relative Schul- und Hochschulbesuch für ausgewählte Geburtsjahrgänge analysiert, wobei zunächst der Durchlauf des Geburtenjahrgangs 1946 durch das Bildungssystem mit Hilfe der Daten zum relativen Schul- und Hochschulbesuch der Jahre 1952 bis 1975 dargestellt wird. Im letzten Teil der Arbeit wird schließlich die Frage aufgeworfen, welche Unterschiede sich bei einer Disaggregierung der Daten des relativen Schul- und Hochschulbesuchs zeigen. Es wird zunächst die Entwicklung des geschlechtsspezifischen relativen Schulbesuchs untersucht. In einem weiteren Analyseschritt wird eine regionale Differenzierung der Daten zum relativen Schulbesuch nach den einzelnen Bundesländern vorgenommen.. Themen Datentabellen im Downloadsystem HISTAT (Thema: Bildung): A. Absolutzahlen: Wohnbevölkerung, Schüler und Studenten (1950-1987). B. Relativer Schulbesuch nach Alter und nach Schularten (1952-1987). (6jährige, 10jährige, 13jährige, 16jährige, 18jährige, 22jährige, 26-29jährige). C. Relativer Hochschulbesuch. (Anteil weiblicher Schüler und Studenten in Prozent, relativer Hochschulbesuch der 22jährigen, der 26jährigen und der 29jährigen an wissenschaftlichen Hochschulen und Kunsthochschulen nach dem Geschlecht, relativer Hochschulbesuch der 22jährigen nach Hochschularten und nach dem Geschlecht). D. Relative Bildungsbeteiligung nach ausgewählten Geburtsjahrgängen. (Relativer Schulbesuch des Geburtsjahrgangs 1940, 1946, 1950, 1960 und 1970 nach Schul- bzw. Hochschularten). E. Bildungsbeteiligung nach Bundesländern. (Unterschiede im relativen Schulbesuch der 13jährigen an Sonderschulen, Realschulen sowie Gymnasien und der 18 jährigen an Gymnasien, Gesamtschulen, Fachgymnasien in den einzelnen Bundesländern). Unter ´Links´ in dieser Studienbeschreibung kann HISTAT aufgerufen werden.

By mid-1941, Axis forces had already taken control of most of mainland Europe, as well as much of Northern Africa and parts of the Middle East*. At the outbreak of Operation Barbarossa, the major European countries not under Axis control were the officially-neutral states of Ireland, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and Turkey, while the Soviet Union and United Kingdom were actively at war with the Axis Powers. By mid-1941, Germany and its allies controlled an area of approximately 3.28 million square kilometers in Europe; by comparison, modern Germany covers an area of approximately 357 thousand square kilometers. Axis control of Europe From September 1938, when Germany annexed the Czech Sudetenland, until June 1941, when Germany launched its invasion of the Soviet Union, the Axis Powers spent much of their time and resources consolidating power across Europe. Countries such as Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, and Finland aligned themselves with Germany, as did Italy, who became one of the chief aggressors around the Mediterranean and in Africa. Germany and the Soviet Union both invaded and partitioned Poland in September 1939, through the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact of non-aggression to one-another. Germany then took Denmark and most of Norway in April 1940, before pushing into Benelux and France in May. Italy also annexed Albania in April, which was used as a launching point for its failed invasion of Greece later in the year. As Italy had failed to secure the Balkans, a joint Axis offensive then pushed into Yugoslavia and Greece in April 1941, ultimately overwhelming any resistance. However, German intervention in the south then delayed the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union by over a month; Hitler later claimed that this was the reason for Germany's failure to take Moscow before the winter months, although many historians disagree. Launch of Operation Barbarossa Germany broke their pact of non-aggression with the Soviet Union with a surprise invasion, known as Operation Barbarossa, on June 22, 1941. While Axis forces had already extended control over most of Europe by this point, Operation Barbarossa became the largest military invasion or operation in human history. When compared with German capacities in its pre-1938 borders, within a few months of the invasion, the area of land controlled by Germany had grown by a factor of six, the population by a factor of four, and its access to natural resources and energy had also grown several times larger. These increased capacities were essential in allowing Germany to continue its expansion and aggression for the years to come, before the Soviet Union and the Western Allies eventually defeated the Axis forces four years later.